tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-87069816451254180812024-02-19T13:37:52.952+08:00Voivode-Dracul-Vlach Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.comBlogger74125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-41583036258434554632019-11-28T13:22:00.000+08:002019-11-28T13:22:11.007+08:00Vlad III Dracula’s Army<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Vlad III Dracula’s official title was voivode. Some take it
to mean “Prince” but in his case the term voivode more accurately means
“Warlord”.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Although he was fairly intelligent and highly educated in
politic Vlad wasn’t, by feudal standards, a “prince” at all. By European
standards he technically wasn’t even considered royalty. His father and brother
were both murdered, leaving him absolutely nothing when he returned to his home
country. </div>
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<br /></div>
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No immense family fortune, no crowns, no servants, no castles, and no
armories. While he most certainly was a champion and leader it was for one of
the poorest and most under-privileged groups in Europe - the Romanians.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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He was not like the Hungarians or Ottomans with their
immense armies of knights dressed in shining, well-kept armor and fleets of
highly skilled assassins riding atop their well-trained warhorses with overflowing
artillery carts following close behind their hordes. Vlad was lacking the one
essential resource which was fundamental for the making of such armies; AKA
ducats. Gold and silver.</div>
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<br /></div>
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While not “poor” by Romanian peasant standards of the time,
Vlad simply could not afford to pay the wages or provide the same privileges
such as food and housing that other lords of his time could. This makes his
achievements even more impressive when you think about the fact that most of
his “soldiers” probably fought on his behalf out of sheer loyalty to him and/or
his state of Wallachia - and indeed they did.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Vlad Dracula’s armies were actually mostly guerilla armies.
Armies made entirely out of his own (ill-fitted) group of peasant men (and
sometimes women). This rag-tag group of Romanians would have been sparsely
outfitted with whatever shields, daggers, swords, and chainmail that they
either had laying around or could makeshift themselves out of local materials.</div>
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<br /></div>
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It is clear to see why Vlad preferred calculated, low risk
military strategies such as targeted blows, sneak attacks, and night raids. It
was to minimize the lose of soldiers on his side who rode into battle with
nothing but a dull saber and the knitted shirts on their backs. It was such a
situation in Wallachia that not even every other man would have had a horse but
maybe one in every four or five would have had a horse or donkey to their name.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
What comparatively little coin Vlad did have was spent - not
on wages for hired-assassins - but mostly on bribes, artillery, and gunpowder.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-26097037886972143272017-12-31T23:11:00.000+08:002017-01-05T19:19:40.093+08:00Foundation of Wallachia<b>The foundation of Wallachia (Romanian: Descălecatul Ţării
Româneşti), that is the establishment of the first independent Romanian
principality, was achieved at the beginning of the 14th century, through
the unification of smaller political units that had existed between the
Carpathian Mountains, and the Rivers Danube, Siret and Milcov.</b><br />
<br />
<b>Prior to the consolidation of Wallachia, waves of nomadic
peoples – the last of them being the Cumans and the Mongols – rode
across the territory. The territory became a frontier area between the
Golden Horde (the westernmost part of the Mongol Empire) and the Kingdom
of Hungary after 1242. The Romanians in Muntenia, east of the Olt
River, had to pay tribute to the Mongols; and west of the river, in
Oltenia, they were oppressed by the Bans of Severin, appointed by the
Kings of Hungary. The Golden Horde’s domination decreased in the region
at the end of the 13th century, and at that time the Kingdom of Hungary
also underwent a strong political crisis. These events enabled the
incipient states of the territory to consolidate their autonomy.</b><br />
<br />
<b>One Romanian tradition records that Wallachia was founded when a
certain Radu Negru (‘Radu the Black’) arrived from the Făgăraş region
in the 1290s after crossing the Transylvanian Alps with “a great many
following him”. More credible is the report that some Romanian lords in
the Olt and Argeş valleys chose as leader one of their number, a certain
Basarab.</b><br />
<br />
<b>It was Voivode Basarab I (c. 1310–1352) who broke off with the
Kingdom of Hungary and refused to accept the king’s suzerainty. Basarab I
received international support and the recognition of the autonomy of
Wallachia due to his great military victory over King Charles I of
Hungary (1301–1342) at Posada on November 12, 1330. The Metropolitan See
of Wallachia, directly subordinated to the Ecumenical Patriarchate of
Constantinople, was set up during the reign of Basarab I’s son, Nicolae
Alexandru (1352–1364). The first silver and bronze coins were minted in
Wallachia in 1365.</b><br />
<br />
<b><i>The Battle of Posada in the Chronicon Pictum is depicted in the top background to this website.</i></b>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-61404283090649697642017-07-24T13:53:00.002+08:002017-07-24T13:53:44.671+08:00Castlevania: Symphony of the Night<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b><i>Castlevania: Symphony of the Night</i></b> was artist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayami_Kojima" title="Ayami Kojima">Ayami Kojima</a><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left: 0.1em;">'</span>s
first appearance in the video game industry. She worked on the game as a
character designer, conceptualizing the game's main and supporting
cast. Her designs for the game are heavily influenced by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bish%C5%8Dnen" title="Bishōnen">bishōnen</a>-style art.<br />
<br />
The game's story takes place during the year <a href="http://castlevania.wikia.com/wiki/Castlevania_Timeline#18th_century" title="Castlevania Timeline">1797</a>, 5 years after the events of <i>Rondo of Blood</i>. The story begins with <a href="http://castlevania.wikia.com/wiki/Richter_Belmont" title="Richter Belmont">Richter Belmont</a>'s defeat of <a href="http://castlevania.wikia.com/wiki/Dracula" title="Dracula">Count Dracula</a>, mirroring the end of the former game. However, despite Dracula being defeated, Richter vanishes without a trace. <a href="http://castlevania.wikia.com/wiki/Dracula%27s_Castle" title="Dracula's Castle">Castlevania</a> rises again five years later, and while there are no Belmonts to storm the castle, <a href="http://castlevania.wikia.com/wiki/Alucard" title="Alucard">Alucard</a>, the son of Dracula, awakens from his self-induced sleep, and decides to investigate what transpired during his slumber.
<br />
Meanwhile, <a href="http://castlevania.wikia.com/wiki/Maria_Renard" title="Maria Renard">Maria Renard</a>,
Richter's sister-in-law, enters Castlevania herself to search for the
missing Richter. She assists Alucard multiple times throughout the game.<br />
<br />
There are four separate endings to the story. If a certain
sequence of events is followed, Richter is revealed to be under the
influence of the dark priest <a href="http://castlevania.wikia.com/wiki/Shaft" title="Shaft">Shaft</a>. After the latter is defeated, an upside-down version of Castlevania, the <a href="http://castlevania.wikia.com/wiki/Reverse_Castle" title="Reverse Castle">Reverse Castle</a>,
appears from the heavens. This castle contains another entire series of
adventures, crowned by the ultimate face-off between Alucard and his
revived father, Dracula himself.<br />
<br />
Dracula Vlad Ţepeş (formerly known as Mathias Cronqvist) is the primary antagonist of the Castlevania series. He is loosely based on the character of the same name in Bram Stoker's novel and the historical figure, Vlad Drăculea. <br />
<h3>
<a href="http://castlevania.wikia.com/wiki/Dracula" target="_blank">STORY</a></h3>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-64961167307519329952017-01-05T19:18:00.003+08:002017-01-05T19:18:41.263+08:00ENTER THE VAMPYRE<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
Lord Byron drafted the original sketch for what became “The
Vampyre.” It would be the story of a mysterious nobleman who
traveled to Greece, where his death would reveal, among other things,
that he had been a vampire all along. That was as far as the great
poet progressed before setting the tale aside.<br />
<br />
Doctor Polidori then picked it up. He discarded his original idea
about a skull-headed lady peeping through a keyhole and fleshed out
Byron’s idea instead. As a writer, the doctor was not without
talent; as a human being, he was touchy, petulant, envious, quick to
take offense—and ultimately self-destructive. He and Lord Byron had
quarreled endlessly, so as Polidori continued to create the vampire
of his tale, Lord Ruthven, he modeled him on the now-hated figure of
the poet. Thus did Polidori’s jaundiced view of a former friend
become the prototype of the literary vampire—which, in turn, has
given rise to popular depictions of the vampire today.<br />
<br />
The most lionized poet of his time, Lord Byron at first glance
made a good model for a vampire. Dark and irresistibly handsome, he
was, according to one former lover, “mad, bad, and dangerous to
know.” Even his friends, such as the dashing naval officer Edward
John Trelawny, acknowledged he was “prouder than Lucifer” and
flashed the “smile of a Mephistopheles.” Byron stayed up all
night, slept most of the day, and once used a human skull as a
drinking bowl. He ate sparingly because he could not exercise; a lame
leg, he said, made strenuous activity extremely painful. After
Trelawny eventually saw the poet’s corpse, he noticed that, beneath
the magnificent torso, “both his feet were clubbed, and his legs
withered to the knee—the form and features of an Apollo, with the
feet and legs of a sylvan satyr.”<br />
<br />
But it was Byron’s character that caused the most controversy.
Much has been made of the Byronic hero—the man who lives by his own
code outside the conventions of society, the figure that novelist
Charlotte Brontë called the “corsair.” But to Polidori, Lord
Byron resembled nothing so much as Lord Ruthven in the opening scenes
of “The Vampyre” he may have been the talk of the ballrooms, but
he was also cold, arrogant, haughty, cruel, and predacious—“a man
entirely absorbed in himself.”<br />
<br />
Aubrey, the story’s narrator, accompanies Ruthven on a tour of
Europe but grows disenchanted with him after witnessing his voracious
sexual appetites and his cruel treatment of women. Ruthven has a
cold, gray eye, while his skin exhibits a hue “which never gained a
warmer tint, either from the blush of modesty, or from the strong
emotion of passion.” Furthermore, all those to whom he gave money
“inevitably found that there was a curse upon it, for they were all
either led to the scaffold, or sunk to the lowest and most abject
misery.”<br />
<br />
In Greece, Aubrey falls in love with Ianthe, a beautiful girl who
is attacked in a remote place one night and killed by a vampire.
Regaining consciousness after wrestling with the fiend, Aubrey
beholds Ruthven sitting there. After further adventures in Greece,
bandits ambush the two men, and Ruthven is killed—or perhaps not,
for the moonlight seems to revive him.<br />
<br />
Ruthven next appears in London at an engagement party for Aubrey’s
sister. Because he must feed at least once a year on the “life of a
lovely female to prolong his existence for the ensuing months,”
Ruthven preys upon Aubrey’s sister, which so enrages the young man
that he dies of a stroke. In the closing line of the story, evil has
emerged triumphant: “Lord Ruthven had disappeared, and Aubrey’s
sister had glutted the thirst of a VAMPYRE!”<br />
<br />
Soon after being published—under Byron’s name, which Polidori
had not approved—in the April 1, 1819, issue of the New Monthly
Magazine, “The Vampyre” was released as a book and became a best
seller. Its initial connection with Byron was undoubtedly the reason;
in Germany, for example, the poet Goethe supposedly pronounced it the
greatest of all Byron’s works.<br />
<br />
Whether in England or on the Continent, the saga of the rapacious
Ruthven was soon in readers’ hands everywhere. Within a year, it
had been mounted on the stage as well. French writer Cyprien Bérard
churned out a sequel, Lord Ruthwen ou les Vampires (1820), which was
attributed to the multitalented librarian and master of the literary
fantasy, Charles Nodier. Though he had nothing to do with its
genesis, Nodier proceeded to give Polidori’s tale a second life as
a play, Le Vampire, though he switched the locale from Greece to
Scotland. The play’s success incited a run on vampires in Paris,
moving one critic to lament, “There is not a theatre in Paris
without its Vampire!”<br />
<br />
Several seasons later, the fad was still going strong: An English
correspondent declared that the vampire was being received with
“rapturous applause at almost all the spectacles from the Odeon to
the Porte St. Martin…. Where are the descendants of the
Encyclopedists and the worshippers of the goddess Reason,” he
asked, when Parisians were mad for “apparitions nocturnes” and
“cadavres mobiles?”<br />
<br />
A young theater innovator named James Planché brought a version
of the French play back to London. The Vampire, or the Bride of the
Isles, opened in August 1820 at the Lyceum; it was given an
incongruous Scottish setting, Planché wrote despairingly, only
because the producer had “set his heart on Scotch music and
dresses—the latter, by the way, were in stock.” Sensationalism,
then as now, ruled the pens of copywriters; the playbill stated that
vampires “are Spirits, deprived of all Hope of Futurity, by the
Crimes committed in their Mortal State” but nevertheless are
allowed to exert “Supernatural Powers of Fascination.” They
cannot be destroyed, it asserted, if they kill one female each
year—“whom they are first compelled to marry.” (That proviso
clearly didn’t stick.) Planché, who invented a “vampire trap”
that allowed the fiend to vanish and reappear onstage in startling
fashion, got it right on his second attempt a few years later, when
he set a revised version of The Vampire in Wallachia, using Magyar
costumes.<br />
<br />
The literary vampire had been loosed upon the world, but Polidori
did not live to see its success. He died in August 1821, only 26
years old, and was buried in the consecrated ground of London’s St.
Pancras churchyard. The truth of his demise—that he had poisoned
himself in despair over gambling debts—was covered up, for in 1821,
an Anglo-Saxon law grimly matching Polidori’s fevered imagination
still remained on the books: It stipulated that a suicide must be
buried at a crossroads, with a stake through his heart. The law was
repealed two years later.<br />
<br />
Two others who shared those hours in the Villa Diodati that stormy
summer of 1816 soon followed Polidori to the grave. In July 1822,
Percy Shelley drowned in a sailing accident off the coast of Italy.
His body was cremated on a makeshift pyre on the beach where it had
washed up—a consummation common among the pagan Greeks the poet had
so admired.<br />
<br />
Not long after the torch was applied, eyewitness Trelawny
recalled, the carcass cracked open; where the skull rested on the
red-hot iron bars, the “brains literally seethed, bubbled, and
boiled as in a cauldron, for a very long time.” When the flames
subsided, there remained only ashes, some bone fragments—and
Shelley’s heart, somehow undamaged. “In snatching this relic from
the fiery furnace,” Trelawny recalled, “my hand was severely
burnt….”<br />
<br />
Less than two years later, in April 1824, Lord Byron died in
Greece, where he had journeyed to fight in the Greek War of
Independence from the Ottoman Turks. Byron apparently succumbed to a
fever—if he wasn’t in fact bled to death by overzealous
physicians—in swampy Missolinghi, just south of the Albanian
border.<br />
<br />
Mary Shelley would die of a brain tumor in 1851, at the age of 53.
As her son sifted through her effects, he found not only locks of her
dead children’s hair but also a copy of Percy Shelley’s Adonais,
an elegy for the poet John Keats, who had likewise died young (though
of tuberculosis). One page of the elegy was folded around a silk bag,
which, when opened, contained some ashes—and a desiccated human
heart.<br />
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-60509349407391135392017-01-05T19:16:00.000+08:002017-01-05T19:16:14.136+08:00DRAGON OR DEVIL?<br />
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And finally there is the matter of that name—Dracula!<br />
<br />
Had Bram Stoker not come across a copy of William Wilkinson’s An
Account of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, in which he
learned of a 15th-century Romanian prince named Dracula who fought
the Ottoman Turks, we might today have a forgotten 19th-century novel
about a Count Wampyr—the author’s original choice for his main
character’s name. Happily for literary posterity, however, Stoker
responded positively to the name Dracula: Drakul is Romanian for
“dragon,” but it also means “devil,” as in those distinctive
Romanian landscape features Gregynia Drakuluj (Devil’s Garden) and
Gania Drakuluj (Devil’s Mountain).<br />
<br />
That may be all there is to it. Stoker might never have known
about Dracula’s other Romanian sobriquet, Vlad Tepes, or “Vlad
the Impaler.”<br />
<br />
A portrait of Vlad Tepes hangs in Ambras Castle, Austria,
alongside one of a man so hirsute he resembles a were-wolf and
another of a person who lived with a lance sticking through his head.
Vlad won a place in this notorious “Chamber of Curiosities”
because he was considered the archetype of the bloodthirsty ruler.
This reputation had been fostered by a series of best-selling German
pamphlets that depicted him, in one case, dining serenely while
severed limbs covered the ground and all around him bodies hung from
sharpened stakes.<br />
<br />
Over the past several decades, a fierce debate has erupted about
whether Stoker knew of Vlad’s bloodthirsty reputation. If so, did
he model his Dracula directly on that historical figure? The debate
is not merely academic; many, if not most, tourists visiting Romania
today equate Count Dracula with Vlad the Impaler. And many, if not
most, Romanians object to this misconception, for Vlad is a national
hero as the defender of their country. Celebrated in poems and
ballads, his statue gazes over Romanian towns, and his visage has
appeared on commemorative stamps. Under no circumstances, therefore,
should Vlad be associated with the world’s most famous vampire.
Some locals, perceiving a business opportunity, shrug their shoulders
and opt not to sweat the distinction; others justifiably resent the
Vlad-vampire conflation as a myth imposed on them from outside.<br />
<br />
No doubt both camps are correct. Whatever sins may be attributed
to Vlad, however, vampirism cannot be counted among them. True, Vlad
was accused in the old German pamphlets of dipping his bread in the
blood of his victims. But it’s unlikely that Bram Stoker knew much
about him. The general traits of Stoker’s vampire seem to have been
settled when he was still known as Count Wampyr; from Vlad, Stoker
borrowed only the more dramatic name—and perhaps the hint of a
proud military past. Otherwise, the fictional Count Dracula owes more
to the traditional villain of Gothic romance than he does to the
historical prince of Wallachia.<br />
<br />
That prince—he was actually a voivode, generally translated as
“prince” or “duke”—was born in Transylvania in 1431. That
was the year when Vlad’s father, in charge of guarding the
Carpathian passes against the Ottomans, was summoned to Nuremberg,
Germany. There, the Holy Roman Emperor inducted Vlad’s father into
the Order of the Dragon, a military fraternity dedicated to defending
Christendom against the Muslim Turks. As voivode of Wallachia, he
became known as Vlad II Dracul, or “Vlad the Dragon.” When his
son eventually succeeded him as voivode, he naturally became Vlad III
Dracula — “the Dragon’s Son.”<br />
<br />
Part of southern Romania today, Wallachia is a grassy plain
bordered on the east and south by the Danube River and on the north
and west by the Carpathians. As the gateway to further Ottoman
expansion in Europe, it lay fully exposed to the Turkish forces
patrolling the river’s south bank. Therefore, Vlad II, despite his
oath to the Order of the Dragon, bought a tenuous security by paying
annual tribute to the sultan. He also surrendered his two younger
sons as hostages for good behavior.<br />
<br />
By the time Vlad III Dracula became voivode in 1456, he was
nursing two long-standing grievances: His years of captivity had
imbued in him a deep hatred for the Turks, and the murder of his
father and older brother (the brother had been buried alive) had
induced a lasting enmity toward their killers, the Wallachian boyars,
or nobles.<br />
<br />
This is where the stories of Vlad’s barbarism begin. In 1457, he
invited the boyars to Tirgoviste, the Wallachian capital, for an
Easter feast. There, Vlad sprang a trap: He impaled those complicit
in the murders of his father and brother. The others he marched off
to the mountains to build his castle, where he worked them until
their clothes fell from their bodies in tatters and they were forced
to slave away naked.<br />
<br />
Emboldened by his coup, Vlad terrorized the Transylvanians between
1459 and 1460, impaling 10,000 in the city of Sibiu, and 30,000
boyars and merchants in Brasov—allegedly in a single day. In the
midst of these killing fields, a table was laid so that boyars who
escaped punishment might join Dracula for an alfresco feast.
Unfortunately, one of his guests could not stomach the spectacle; the
nauseating odors of the rotting corpses, the Impaler noticed, seemed
to overcome the man. The sensitive noble was therefore impaled on a
stake higher than all the rest, thus permitting him to die above the
stench.<br />
<br />
Two monks passing through Wallachia were accosted by Dracula, who
asked them if his actions might be justified in the eyes of God. The
first monk more or less told him what he wanted to hear. The second
one, however, condemned his actions as reprehensible. In most German
pamphlets depicting this episode, the honest monk is hoisted aloft
while the cowardly one is rewarded. In most Russian pamphlets, by
contrast, the honest monk is spared.<br />
<br />
In another tale of savagery, two ambassadors arrive from a foreign
court and decline to remove their hats in the presence of Dracula.
Vlad thereupon orders that their hats be nailed to their heads.<br />
<br />
There are dozens of such stories, and most of them are clearly
exaggerated. This is not to suggest that executions did not take
place—death by impalement was a custom in eastern Europe and among
the Turks—but the numbers and incidents are almost certainly
inflated. A typical impalement seems to have involved hitching a
horse to each of a victim’s legs and by those means pulling him
slowly onto the point of a horizontal greased stake, driving it
through the rectum and running it up through the bowels. The stake
with its gory burden was then hoisted into a vertical position. Done
correctly—if that is the word for it—the agony of death might be
prolonged for hours. Whatever method was employed, impalement was
unquestionably labor- and resource-intensive: It demanded time, men,
horses, and wood. Vlad’s forces were never very large, and although
he had access to abundant timber in the Carpathians, most of
Wallachia was steppe.<br />
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-66636779290333149162017-01-05T19:07:00.002+08:002017-01-05T19:07:52.090+08:00THE FOREST OF THE SLAIN<br />
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<br />
Menaced by the Turks to his front and by rebellious nobles to his
rear, bled by German merchants in Transylvania monopolizing trade and
ignoring his customs duties, Vlad, cruel though he might have been,
had a motive for ruthlessness. On the other side, German
pamphleteers, informed by refugees that German merchants were being
persecuted, had every reason to depict Vlad as a bloodthirsty sadist.
In any event, as owners of newly invented printing presses quickly
discovered, sensationalism sold.<br />
<br />
We are on firmer ground, thanks to Ottoman chronicles, when war
between the Wallachians and the Turks resumed between 1461 and 1462.
Here, Dracula proved himself an exceptionally able commander, raiding
deep into Ottoman territory and waging daring attacks by night. But
his forces were greatly outnumbered, and as he retreated deeper and
deeper into Wallachia, he engaged in scorched-earth tactics: burning
villages, poisoning wells, and sending plague victims in disguise to
sow pestilence in the Turkish camps.<br />
<br />
The harried Janissaries crumpled beneath their crescent banners.
The final straw was apparently the sight of the “Forest of the
Impaled”—the rotting corpses of thousands of Turkish prisoners
that stood outside the city of Tirgoviste. Sultan Mehmed II, never
one to quail easily, was so sickened by the sight of ravens nesting
inside the putrid carcasses that he abandoned the campaign and
returned to Constantinople.<br />
<br />
Savior or psychopath, it seems unjust that Vlad would be arrested
soon afterward by the Hungarian king. Preferring a policy of
appeasement toward the Ottomans, the king schemed to replace Vlad
with his younger, pro-Turkish brother. After that brother died in
1476, Vlad returned to Wallachia and resumed his campaign against the
Turks. Forsaken by his allies, however, he was forced to march with
fewer than 4,000 men against a far larger Ottoman army. It would be
his last fight.<br />
<br />
Yet, even Vlad’s death and burial have their legendary elements.
Dracula was most likely assassinated by a Turkish agent in the
marshes of the Vlasia Forest near Bucharest in the last days of 1476.
By all accounts, his severed head was then sent to the sultan.
Whatever further indignities may have been inflicted on his body, it
was said that monks eventually claimed it and ferried it across the
deep waters of a lake to the island monastery of Snagov (reminiscent
of the dying King Arthur’s journey to the Isle of Avalon). There,
Vlad was buried in the chapel, at the foot of the altar beneath a
stone slab polished smooth by generations of piously shuffling feet.<br />
<br />
Between 1931 and 1932, Romanian archaeologist Dinu Rosetti removed
that slab and found a tomb containing nothing but scattered animal
bones and a few bits of ceramic. Then another—and nearly
identical—stone slab was discovered near the church doors. After
removing it, Rosetti beheld a coffin covered by the remains of a
gold-embroidered purple pall. Inside the coffin was a headless
skeleton. It was clothed in disintegrating silk brocade, and in place
of the missing skull were the remains of a crown, worked in cloisonné
and studded with turquoise. There was also a ring such as the sort of
token a 15th-century noblewoman might have bestowed upon her favorite
knight—and indeed one did bestow such a prize on Vlad II Dracul,
the father, on the night of his 1431 investiture in the Order of the
Dragon, and he is believed to have passed it on to his son.<br />
<br />
Rosetti, understandably, believed he had found Dracula’s
remains. Perhaps some abbot, discomfited by the notion of that man so
near the altar, had moved the remains from their original crypt?
However they got there, they were now transported to the Bucharest
History Museum. From there, they disappeared during the chaos of
World War II. They have not been seen since.<br />
<br />
And the head? Reportedly, it was taken to Constantinople and
displayed high atop a stake before the sultan’s palace, where all
might behold the Impaler impaled.<br />
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-3722209649791383692016-10-27T00:44:00.001+08:002016-10-27T00:44:16.853+08:00The Hungarian Crown 1619<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
<em><strong>Matthias (24 February 1557 – 20 March 1619) Holy Roman Emperor, </strong></em><em><strong>King of Germany</strong></em><em><strong> Reign 13 June 1612 – 20 March 1619</strong></em><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<em><strong>Bethlen Gábor</strong></em></div>
<br />
The Bohemians increasingly looked to Bethlen Gábor to save them. The
Transylvanian prince had his eyes set on the Hungarian crown, always a
more realistic prospect than the Bohemian one. He wrote to the Bohemians
on 18 August 1619, announcing he would soon join them in Moravia. This
was a ploy to win their support, which would improve his position in
negotiations with the Hungarians who were meeting in Pressburg. A wave
of re-conversions among the leading Magyar nobles of the western and
north-western counties since 1608 had given the Catholics a majority in
the diet again. However, neither they nor the Protestants wanted to be
drawn into the Bohemian conflict. Bethlen posed as mediator, winning
backing from disaffected Upper Hungarian Protestant magnates, like
György Rákóczi and Counts Szaniszló and Imre Thurzó. His envoy persuaded
the Ottoman grand vizier, Mehmed Pasha, to sanction war against the
Habsburgs and promise Turkish infantry as auxiliaries.<br />
<br />
<br />
Bethlen’s intervention betrayed the problems that would bedevil all
Transylvanian involvement in the war. He was convinced Frederick and the
Bohemians were rich and would provide the subsidies he needed to keep
his largely irregular cavalry army in the field and pay for the infantry
and artillery required to take the Habsburg fortresses. For their part,
Frederick and his advisers saw what they wanted: a man who claimed to
have read the Bible 26 times had to be a crusader of the righteous
against Habsburg Catholic tyranny. Bethlen had already demanded 400,000
talers and all of Inner Austria in June, but decided to start operations
before Frederick agreed, since he needed a tangible success to convince
the Bohemians and the sultan to back him. He left Cluj (Klausenburg) on
26 August with 35,000 men, while Rákóczi entered Kassa unopposed with
5,000 Upper Hungarians a week later. György Széchy and other Upper
Hungarian supporters threatened Pressburg to disrupt the efforts of the
loyalist Hungarian palatine, Sigismund Forgách, to organize resistance.
The Upper Hungarian mining towns declared for Bethlen, but he delayed
his own advance to convene a special assembly of supporters at Kassa who
declared him ‘Protector of Hungary’ on 21 September, effectively
deposing Forgách. Ferenc Rhédey was sent with over 12,000 horsemen
across the Little Carpathians into Moravia, while Bethlen resumed his
advance with the rest of his army towards Pressburg, destroying a
Habsburg detachment sent to save it.<br />
<br />
<br />
The situation looked dire for the Habsburgs. Garrisons along the
Military Frontier declared for Bethlen, leaving only Komorn, Raab and
Neutra loyal. Forgách could muster only 2,500 men in the field, while a
mere 2,650 under Archduke Leopold held Vienna with a further 560 in
Krems and the other Danube towns. Bucquoy and the main army of 17,770
was away around Tabor and Pisek in south-west Bohemia, with Dampierre
and 8,600 along the Moravian frontier. The timing was significant.
Ferdinand was still on his way back from his coronation in Frankfurt,
while the Bohemians had just declared their Confederation and elected
Frederick. Bucquoy was obliged to abandon his advance against Prague,
leave 5,000 men to hold his current positions and race with the rest to
save Vienna.<br />
<br />
<br />
Panic again gripped the Lower Austrian population as Bethlen’s light
cavalry crossed the Danube at Pressburg and swarmed across the area to
the south during late October. Refugees crowded into the city, while the
rich fled over the Alps. Bucquoy had joined Dampierre, but decided not
to risk the emperor’s only army as it was outnumbered three to two by
Hohenlohe, Thurn and Rhédey approaching from Moravia. He retreated
across the Danube at Vienna, burning the bridge on 25 October. Though
they controlled the entire north bank, the Confederates could not reach
the city on the other side, and were obliged to march east to cross
downstream at Pressburg. Bethlen used the lull to consolidate his
position in Hungary. Having captured Forgách at Pressburg, he forced him
to convene a diet on 18 November to start the process of deposing
Ferdinand as king. The Confederates finally crossed the river on 21
November, and moved west again on the south side, defeating Bucquoy’s
attempt to delay them at Bruck five days later. The Lower Austrian
Protestants moved 3,000 men east towards Krems, cutting the Habsburg
forces off from the other side.<br />
<br />
<br />
For a third time within a year, the enemy was at the gates of
Ferdinand’s capital. Undaunted, the emperor dodged snow, refugees and
Transylvanian marauders to re-enter the city. Leopold had made careful
preparations since the last attack, stockpiling enough food to feed the
20,000 soldiers and 75,000 civilians who were now inside the city. The
besiegers again appeared without heavy artillery and Bucquoy had torched
the surrounding countryside so that it could not now sustain the 42,000
troops ringing Vienna. Heavy rain worsened their plight, especially
among the Bohemians who had gone months without pay. The promised
Turkish auxiliaries had yet to appear. The mutual disillusionment
between Bethlen and his allies added to tensions in the Confederate camp
where disease halved their effective strength. The final straw was news
on 27 November that Transylvania had been attacked. The siege was
abandoned a week later, with all the contingents hurrying home except
the Bohemians, who remained in Lower Austria<br />
<em><strong> </strong></em>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-72567953420180932552016-08-11T15:41:00.001+08:002016-08-11T15:41:33.987+08:0010 Fascinating Facts About The Real Dracula<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-image="http://i1.wp.com/listverse.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/7980627478_3ec0e49331_z.jpg?resize=600,636" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article-full">
<h4>
<a href="http://listverse.com/2013/01/26/10-fascinating-facts-about-the-real-dracula/">10 Fascinating Facts About The Real Dracula - Listverse</a></h4>
Creepy Bram Stoker's version of Dracula is one of the most timeless monsters in literature, and one of the first examples of a "classic vampire"-elegant, brooding, and with a thirst for human blood.</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-12758822482691258322016-08-11T15:37:00.001+08:002016-08-11T15:37:11.953+08:0010 Early Versions Of The Vampire<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-image="http://i2.wp.com/listverse.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/10_179208313.jpg?resize=632,363" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article-full">
<h4>
<a href="http://listverse.com/2013/11/25/10-early-versions-of-the-vampire/">10 Early Versions Of The Vampire - Listverse</a></h4>
Weird Stuff Thanks to pop culture, the term "vampire" has a very different connotation today than it did hundreds of years ago. The vampire myth can be traced back to the earliest of recorded history, and most early vampires were far from the elegant, sparkling creature we tend to think of today.</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-68675631255331773052016-03-28T12:40:00.000+08:002016-03-28T12:40:51.899+08:00Extirpation of Vampires<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSymTDcmrPWBKlPBXxHWIzt2PDA2o59GftMPq5F24gaf4U_-ei2Ep9bDX4oaPMk7RMdkHjKB9xspxDjGK87X2FA_fjXiomcJ0lqDgkjHJMmtGCMMhPJsy58puH12RbBtA8rDQTD_YrHro/s1600/Blood-Vampire132791920100_art.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSymTDcmrPWBKlPBXxHWIzt2PDA2o59GftMPq5F24gaf4U_-ei2Ep9bDX4oaPMk7RMdkHjKB9xspxDjGK87X2FA_fjXiomcJ0lqDgkjHJMmtGCMMhPJsy58puH12RbBtA8rDQTD_YrHro/s400/Blood-Vampire132791920100_art.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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The commonest methods of the extirpation of vampires are – </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(a) beheading the suspected corpse;</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(b) taking out the heart; </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(c) impaling the corpse with a white - thorn stake (in
Russia an aspen), and </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(d) burning it. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sometimes more than one or all of these precautions is
taken. Instances are on record where the graves of as many as thirty or forty
persons have been disturbed during the course of an epidemic of vampirism and
their occupants impaled or beheaded. Persons who dread the visits or attacks of
a vampire sleep with a wreath made of garlic round the neck, as that esculent
is supposed to be especially obnoxious to the vampire. When impaled the vampire
is usually said to emit a dreadful cry, but it has been pointed out that the
gas from the intestines may be forced through the throat by the entry of the
stake into the body, and that this may account for the sound. The method of
discovering a vampire's grave in Serbia is to place a virgin boy upon a coal -
black stallion which has never served a mare and marking the spot where he will
not pass. An officer quartered in Wallachia wrote to Calmet as follows, giving
him an instance of this method: </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
"At the time when we were quartered at Temeswar in
Wallachia, there died of this disorder two dragoons of the company in which I
was cornet, and several more who had it would have died also, if the corporal
of the company had not put a stop to it, by applying a remedy commonly made use
of in that country. It is of a very singular kind, and, though infallibly to be
depended on, I have never met with it in any Dispensatory. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
"They pick out a boy, whom they judge to be too young
to have lost his maidenhead, and mount him bare upon a coal - black stone -
horse, which has never leaped a mare. This virgin - pair is led about the
church - yard, 2tnd across all the graves, and wherever the animal stops, and
refuses to go on, in spite of all the whipping they can give him, they conclude
they have discovered a vampire. Upon opening the grave, they find a carcass as
fleshy and fair as if the person were only in a slumber. The next step is to
cut off his head with a spade, and there issues from the wound such a quantity
of fresh and florid blood, that one would swear they had cut the throat of a
man in full health and vigour. They then fill up the pit, and it may be
depended on that the disorder will cease, and that all who were ill of it will
gradually get strength, like people that recover slowly after a long illness. Accordingly,
this happened to our troopers, who were attacked with the distemper. I was at
that time commanding officer of the troop, the captain and lieutenant being
absent, and was extremely angry at the corporal for having made this experiment
without me. It was with great difficulty that I prevailed with myself not to
reward him with a good cudgel, a thing of which the officers of the emperor's
service are usually very liberal. I would not, for the world, have been absent
upon this occasion, but there was now no remedy." </div>
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A Bulgarian belief is that a wizard or sorcerer may entrap a
vampire by placing in a bottle some food for which the vampire has a
partiality, and on his entry in the shape of fluff or straw, sealing up, the
flask and throwing it into the fire.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-13583341596195494032016-03-14T19:03:00.000+08:002016-03-14T19:03:00.954+08:00Vampir-platenik <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5tnXvmCJazy1kT9NW7GOllGTjcYgBBP6fibnotmw9LTr3iKCIZN_O5-O43U-3xaFfsQq0s5jPAff-QVTopoVH-dMS9IcJO5QAAGBV5oZsYmAxtCb1RYfoKSQ3J6iukhfblbWdpm1HzNA/s1600/vampir_platenik.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5tnXvmCJazy1kT9NW7GOllGTjcYgBBP6fibnotmw9LTr3iKCIZN_O5-O43U-3xaFfsQq0s5jPAff-QVTopoVH-dMS9IcJO5QAAGBV5oZsYmAxtCb1RYfoKSQ3J6iukhfblbWdpm1HzNA/s400/vampir_platenik.jpg" width="291" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>Vampir-platenik (incarnated vampire)<br />(Illustration taken from: Krassimir Mirchev. Vampiri, gunduratzi, zmey. Sofia, Panorama Publishing House, 1998. Illustrated by Viktor Paunov)</b></i></div>
<br />Vampires have hovered over Bulgaria since ancient Slavic times. In fact, the Bulgarian word "vampir" comes from Latin, which means that the "genealogy" of this evil creature dates back to much earlier times.<br />
<br />
In its 19th century version, a vampire is the incarnated soul of a dead person that had been jumped over by a cat, dog or some other animal. That is why before being buried, each dead person's body is closely guarded by the relatives - lest even a human shadow falls on the corpse, which can prove to be fatal too. Moreover, those who have been hanged, stifled or cursed, while still living, may also become vampires.<br />
<br />
The appearance of a vampire is not specific, all the more that it is invisible. According to some people, it looks like a "shadow of a human being, a cat, a dog, a hen", etc. Some other people believe that a vampire resembles the dead person, whom it has come from, but has no bones or flesh, and is made only of skin, full of blood. In a modern book for children, it is described in the following picturesque way: "In the thorn-bushes near the graveyard a skin is squatting - with short legs, small claw feet, black holes instead of eyes, with a bony nose and iron teeth. The skin is full of blood, it is a vampire."<br />
<br />How terrible!... The monstrous thing comes out of its grave at night. It often comes back to the house, where it had lived before, squeezes and strangles its dear people in their sleep, raves in the attic, sweeps the bowls off the shelves, soils the milk and the water. The vampire drives the cattle away to the fields, sometimes sticks to the cattle's abdomens and sucks their blood, which makes its victim grow weak. But on the other hand, it is also rather silly - if the owners of the house have sprinkled millet on the floor, it is carried away and begins to count the millet grain by grain. Besides, it can be cheated in a countless number of ways. And as soon as the cocks begin to crow, it hurries to retire to its grave.<br />
<br />In fact, a vampire is as frightful as it is faint-hearted and vulnerable. It is afraid not only of light, but also of fire, water, thorns, and iron, of wolves, of animal sculls. Lightning would easily kill it.<br />If it manages to survive till its fortieth day, and has sucked enough blood, a vampire stops running wild, gains power and becomes embodied, it becomes 'platnik' (embodied vampire). It looks like every other human being, but has no fingernails, its bones are soft like cartilage, and its eyes - red. In such cases it usually leaves for some far off village, where gets married and has children. This 'platnik' can also be transformed into a dog, a wolf or some other animal, it is disposed to attacking its wife, biting and torturing her in broad daylight. Still, the embodied vampire never stays too long in the human world, since if only it pricks itself, all the blood that fills up its skin leaks away.<br />
<br />It is interesting to note that the offspring born of such marriages, have also red eyes, and not only can see vampires, but are their most severe hunters. They are known as 'vampirdzhii' (vampire-chasers). Vampire-chasers are also people endowed by Heaven with the power of disclosing (as a rule, with the help of an icon) and killing vampires. Vampire-chasers of the two types would catch the monsters, boil them in large cauldrons, or kill them with a briar picket, only a jelly stuff or some clotted blood being left of them. The grave of someone who has turned vampire can be known by its sunken surface, or the hollow in it. Such grave should be opened, and the corpse, the abdomen or the head of the dead person, pierced with a hot spike. This should be made only on Saturday - when the souls of the dead do not leave their bodies.<br />
<br />All these beliefs were still current among many a superstitious Bulgarian in early 20th century. Researchers, who deal with this subject, point out that many locations in the country have their 'own' vampire stories. They are always related with a particular person, who, while still living, had been known to everybody.<br /><br />
<br />
<br /><br /> <br /><br /><i><b> </b></i>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-74723302367309971222016-03-14T18:59:00.002+08:002016-03-14T18:59:32.641+08:00Platnik<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6v4UidH76YGXNXIgi2Kt_vI48h4Iy4CnESqtCVL0IHeY81sRCcSarbs-Adl8UM2GXXkSSDOFCVChWpa-aEMje0lbTdWD_IJ8kNhZaJ6jvWqFswlAJx03Aj5YARQD1fIQBcONiNvl6eMM/s1600/tumblr_nr1h8cCP1Y1u80n71o1_500.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6v4UidH76YGXNXIgi2Kt_vI48h4Iy4CnESqtCVL0IHeY81sRCcSarbs-Adl8UM2GXXkSSDOFCVChWpa-aEMje0lbTdWD_IJ8kNhZaJ6jvWqFswlAJx03Aj5YARQD1fIQBcONiNvl6eMM/s400/tumblr_nr1h8cCP1Y1u80n71o1_500.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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A vampiric being from Bulgaria, the platnik has a measurable
and precise life cycle. After the body is buried, the spirit spends the first
nine days of its unlife in the grave, and as it develops, the surface of its
grave begins to sink in. As soon as that time has passed, the platnik rises
from its grave as a spirit and begins attacking its family members for the next
40 days. In spirit form it looks like the shadow of a dog, hen, or person.
Platnik attacks will range anywhere from break- ing dishes to running off the
cattle at night to vandalizing homes as well as physically assault- ing people.
To prevent a platnik from attacking while still in its spirit form, one must
utilize the things it is afraid of: animal skulls, fire, iron, light, and
wolves-it will not stay in an area where these things are present.
Unfortunately, only a bolt of lightning will kill it, and the chances of that
happening are rather slim. Ex-huming the body on a Saturday and then piercing
the corpse with a red- hot poker may also work. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If the spirit vampire can manage to drink enough blood and
not get itself destroyed in the process, at the end of its 40-day rampage, it
will become a platnik: a full- blown, solid- form vampire. It can now pass for
a normal person except for having no fingernails and red eyes; furthermore, it will
have the ability to shape-shift into a dog or wolf. Its new body does not have
bones, but rather a cartilage- like substance. The first thing a new platnik
will do upon developing its body will be to seek out its widow and attack her
in broad daylight, torturing her to death. As soon as she is dead, the platnik
will leave town and seek out a new place to live as far from its old community
as possible. Once established in a place where no one will know it is a REVENANT,
it will marry and have children. The offspring will be born VAMPIRDZHII. If the
platnik is discovered for what it is, it can easily be killed. Any simple cut
will prove to be fatal, causing it to bleed out and die. Its blood will be
thick, dark, and jelly- like and is called pixtija.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Vampirdzhii </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In Bulgaria there is a living, vampiric half-breed called a
vampirdzhii, born from the union between a human and a PLATNIK. Blessed by God,
this red-eyed being can reveal a vampire for what it is by using holy icons. The
vampirdzhii's preferred method of destroying vampires is to prick them with a
briar thorn or by boiling the vampire to death in a large cauldron. They are
similar to other vampire hunters such as the DHAMPIRE, PLATNIK, and the VAMPIRDZHIJA.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Vampirdzhija</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
From Bulgaria comes another type of vampire hunter known as
a vampirdzhija. It specializes in the hunting and destruction of a type of
vampire known as an USTREL. Using a highly ritualistic ceremony, on a Saturday
morning all the fires in a community with a vampire are extinguished. Then, at
the crossroads, the vampirdzhija builds two bonfires that are set aflame with
"new fire," that is, fire that is created from the rubbing together
of two sticks. Next, all the cattle and sheep are gathered together and herded
to pass between the twin bonfires, as the mature USTREL lives in the space in between
the animals' horns. The USTREL, rather than being singed, or worse, will leap
off the animal and run into the countryside, where wolves will find and devour
it. After all of the animals have passed through the bonfires, a fagot of new
fire is taken into the community and used to relight all of the fires there.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-86821269408171082162016-03-14T18:18:00.005+08:002016-08-29T06:18:42.340+08:00DRACULA BETWEEN FICTION AND HISTORY. <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJyt3Mp77YhaJMkXrA13qaEhr-Xb8H5pP_XYKuGC6QWPIsAgqtM68If0JOsgCdrC8LBB9miFd-zLuTHGn50ZEqOQjbypLODalZXfh6mBCPjWE7K-R5iC1vnLdV-nT-pKry-4REL0Ejfj8/s1600/vlad_tepes_big-x01.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJyt3Mp77YhaJMkXrA13qaEhr-Xb8H5pP_XYKuGC6QWPIsAgqtM68If0JOsgCdrC8LBB9miFd-zLuTHGn50ZEqOQjbypLODalZXfh6mBCPjWE7K-R5iC1vnLdV-nT-pKry-4REL0Ejfj8/s400/vlad_tepes_big-x01.jpg" width="376" /></a></div>
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</xml><![endif]--><b>By Dinu Matei, Calgary, Canada.</b><br /><br /><br />First published in "Calgary Philatelist", issue #34, February 1999, pp.3-6.<br /><br /><br /><br />Vlad Tepes, pronounced 'tzepesh', or Vlad the Impaler, ruled the Principality of Wallachia (part of Romania) in 1448, 1456-1462, and 1476. Bram Stoker's novel Dracula, published in 1887, made this Romanian prince famous worldwide and attributed to him an exaggerated cruelty. In Dracula, Vlad Tepes was portrayed differently from the real Vlad of history. <br /><br /><br />Vlad Tepes was born in 1428 in Sighisoara, Transylvania. His father is known in history under the name Vlad Dracul. In Romanian, 'drac' means evil. However, there are no documents reporting how evil he was. The nickname 'Dracul' came from hid membership in the Order of the Dragon. This was a military and religious brotherhood founded by the Sigismund of Luxembourg (King of Hungary) with the objective to protect the church against heresy and the Turks. In German the order is named Drachenorders, while in Latin Societates draconistarum. Members of this order wore a black cape and a medallion depicting a dragon. In the Middle Ages it was easy for ordinary people, extremely religious, to mistake the dragon with the evil, so from this confusion came the name Dracul. Vlad Tepes inherited this name from his father, and his descendants bear it as a family name. Real descendants of this family still exist today. The nickname 'the Impaler' came from the fact that Vlad Tepes used to impale his enemies. Reputed to be an evil and bloodthirsty man, he was just one of several more-or-less fierce leaders in a time when cruelty was the norm. <br /><br /><br />Romanian principalities Wallachia and Moldova shared a border with the Ottoman Empire in the Middle Ages. This empire was one of the most powerful in the world and was trying to expand towards Europe. In order to gain trust from the Sultans, many children from the noble Romanian families were sent voluntarily to Istanbul as hostages. Vlad and one of his brothers were no exceptions. Vlad Tepes returned to Wallachia after his father was killed and another brother was blinded with a burning stake and buried alive. These two facts are said to be the origin of Vlad Tepes' cruelty. As mentioned earlier, torture and cruelty was normal in the whole Europe during the Middle Ages. <br /><br /><br />Other cruelties attributed to Vlad Tepes were killing 'unchaste' women and 'bad' wives, killing entire families suspected of disloyalty, killing poor, blind, crippled, sick, vagabonds, and beggars, nailing hats to heads of disrespectful visitors, and cannibalism. This came from an intense propaganda campaign launched by Matei Corvin (King of Hungary at that time and one of his big enemies) due to envy of Vlad's successes against the Turks, and by German merchants from the city of Brasov (Kronstadt in German) who were opponents to Vlad Tepes' economic politics. Turk and Russian traditions also depict Vlad Tepes as a cruel and bloodthirsty man. <br /><br /><br />During Vlad Tepes' time, Wallachia was a crime-free country. The Turks wanted to invade the country but were defeated several times and kept at the south of the Danube River (in Bulgaria nowadays). For his successful military campaigns against the Turks, Vlad Tepes was named "magnifico Vlad voivoda" in an Italian document. He was not considered a vampire during this time, but a hero and strong ruler of his country. He is first mentioned as an extremely cruel man in a book published at Lübeck, Germany, in 1471. <br /><br /><br />Bram Stoker never visited Romania. He was inspired by the evil deeds of Countess Elizabeth Bathory who lived in Transylvania about 150 years later than Vlad Tepes. She used to kill young girls and used their fresh blood to take baths, hoping this would help her to remain forever young. For these crimes she was sentenced to death and walled alive into a castle room in 1610. For similar accusations a French nobleman was beheaded in France during the same period. <br /><br /><br />Vlad Tepes' tumultuous life as well as the harshness of his punishments tempted many writers. A fashion of Dracula the Vampire Count was born with great success, and many books and more than 100 movies were done on the subject. We can assume that Count Dracula was created thanks to the inspiration provided by Transylvanian history, where old castles such as the one attributed to Dracula set the mood for bloody ghosts and terrifying vampires. Bram Stoker possibly chose the name Dracula because it suggested the macabre. He needed a male hero for his novel, published at a time when the crimes committed by Jack the Ripper in London were on the front pages of British newspapers. The novel Dracula has very few historical truths in it. Bram Stoker himself knew very little about the real Vlad Tepes. The action of the book takes place in Transylvania, but he never ruled that province, just Wallachia. The title of Count did not exist for Romanian noblemen during the Middle Ages; Vlad Tepes was in fact a Royal Prince. However, Bram Stoker's description of the Romanian localities and many geographical places are real. <br /><br /><br />Located on a cliff in the Carpathians, 'Dracula's Castle' is actually named Bran Castle, after a pass between Transylvania and Wallachia. It was built by the German merchants from Brasov in 1377 to keep under control the inland and outland commercial traffic. Restored several times, in this century the castle was the residence of Queen Maria of Romania in the 1920s, and is now converted into a museum. <br /><br /><br />Vlad Tepes was depicted on Romanian stamps on several occasions. First was in 1959 when Bucharest, the capital of Romania, celebrated 500 years since it was for the first time mentioned in a document, signed by Vlad Tepes himself. This document is kept in the National History Museum of Romania, in Bucharest. It, along with the portrait of Vlad, is depicted on a beautiful engraved miniature sheet issued by the Romanian Postal Administration. This portrait is the only known portrait of Vlad and is kept in an Austrian monastery in the Tirol. Based on the same painting, Vlad Tepes' figure appeared on a stamp issued by Romania in 1976, when 500 years since his death were commemorated. Two more stamps were issued in Romania in 1997, one depicting him as a Prince of Wallachia and another depicting him as Dracula. Bran Castle and Poenari Castle (one of the real residences of Vlad, now in ruins) are depicted on two labels that separate the stamps. Bran Castle was depicted also on a stamp issued in 1929, while images from Vlad Tepes' home town appear on a set issued in 1997. Several special postmarks, postal stationery, and postcards depicting him and/or Bran Castle were issued over the years. Matei Corvin, King of Hungary, who kept Vlad Tepes imprisoned for ten years and who finally executed him, is pictured on several stamps issued in Hungary. Vlad Tepes in buried at the Snagov Monastery, near Bucharest.<br />
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Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-87688267093674384622015-10-11T01:01:00.000+08:002016-02-08T05:18:44.283+08:00Transylvania 16th century<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeNZ93GNYr6Uy96rpGqPJP9GpOwpEmXOFllBQPR9N2NVFLYqtiTEbiCUAPu-bTxCKaRjqI8lJlDzWpDEE8mI7iTjQU4AWvHjdZ3bNLfk1zBEaCqLGBuV0uaG1V4p3gGVEGW0imVb3SICI/s1600/bocskai_hajdu.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeNZ93GNYr6Uy96rpGqPJP9GpOwpEmXOFllBQPR9N2NVFLYqtiTEbiCUAPu-bTxCKaRjqI8lJlDzWpDEE8mI7iTjQU4AWvHjdZ3bNLfk1zBEaCqLGBuV0uaG1V4p3gGVEGW0imVb3SICI/s400/bocskai_hajdu.jpg" width="208" /></a></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Foot-hajdus from the army of Bocskai István, (Principality of
Transylvania, around 1600)</i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizhDXvlYmRcPki0SGhXtxMGzMuBtmGWU4Yft4-dTI0B7GFX-o708VQkbOQQfaTIZP1To5cRYaY9-mG3m3F4LQLDbQIDw1knz2cFFiLKVKN5uz-Cusi2kCuFdmxLAei1NF6nJse1vYVgEM/s1600/Mihai_Viteazul_fighting_the_Turks%252C_Giurgiu%252C_October_1595.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="310" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizhDXvlYmRcPki0SGhXtxMGzMuBtmGWU4Yft4-dTI0B7GFX-o708VQkbOQQfaTIZP1To5cRYaY9-mG3m3F4LQLDbQIDw1knz2cFFiLKVKN5uz-Cusi2kCuFdmxLAei1NF6nJse1vYVgEM/s400/Mihai_Viteazul_fighting_the_Turks%252C_Giurgiu%252C_October_1595.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Michael the Brave defeating the Turks in Giurgiu, October 1595.</i></b><br />
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
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The difficulty in obtaining a clear picture prevented
outsiders from perceiving the Ottomans’ mounting internal difficulties. The
absence of accepted rules of succession bred bitter family feuds and forced
each new sultan to command his deaf mutes to strangle his immediate brothers
and sisters. The internal intrigues weakened the sultanate that lost direction
at a time when their most dangerous foes to the east were entering a period of
renewed vigour under the Safavid dynasty in Persia. The new conquests failed to
bring sufficient rewards to satisfy the groups essential to the running of the
Ottoman Empire – notably the army, which had once been a pillar of strength and
which now entered politics with disastrous results. Accustomed to rich bonuses
from new sultans, the regular Janissary infantry began extorting rewards in
return for continued loyalty, leading to the assassination of Osman II in 1622,
setting a precedent that was repeated in 1648 and again later in the seventeenth
century.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The internal problems of their empire made the Ottomans more
unpredictable in their actions, adding to an already unstable situation in
south-east Europe at the point where their empire met that of the Habsburgs to
the west and the lands of the Poles to the north. The war that broke out in
1593 was essentially a struggle between two of these powers to extend influence
over the intervening region while denying access to their rivals. Hungary to
the west was already split into Habsburg and Ottoman spheres, with the emperor
controlling the north and south-west, along with Croatia, while the sultan
commanded the central area and south-east. Neither side had a clear position in
the region further east that was split into four principalities, all nominally
under Turkish suzerainty, but pursuing varying degrees of autonomy. The area
along the northern shores of the Black Sea belonged to the Crimean Tartars, the
descendants of Ghengis Khan who had paid tribute to the sultan since the later
fifteenth century. They provided useful auxiliaries for his armies, but were
largely left alone since they served as a buffer between Ottoman territory and
that of the Russian tsar further to the north-east. The three Christian
principalities of Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania lay to the north and
west of the Tartars. They likewise paid tribute, but were more open to
influence from Poland and Austria. The Poles sought access to the Black Sea by
pushing into Podolia, between Moldavia and the Crimea. Polish influence grew
pronounced in Moldavia during the 1590s and they also intrigued in Transylvanian
and Wallachian politics.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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Of the three, Transylvania is the most significant to our
story, and an examination of its internal politics reveals much that was
typical for Moldavia and Wallachia as well. Formed from the wreckage of old
Hungary in the 1540s, Transylvania was a patchwork of four major and several
minor communities. In addition to pockets of Turkish peasants and Eastern
Slavs, there were Orthodox Romanians, Calvinist Magyars, Lutheran German
immigrants, called Saxons, and finally the self-governing Szekler people,
living in the forested east, who remained Catholic. The prince maintained power
by brokering agreements between these groups, particularly the three ‘nations’
of Magyar nobles, Saxon towns and Szekler villages entitled to sit in the diet.
The balance was enshrined in the Torda agreement from 1568 that extended equal
rights to Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists and the radical Unitarians (who
rejected the doctrine of the Holy Trinity and refused to believe that Christ
had been human in any way). Separate princely decrees extended toleration to
Jews and the substantial Romanian population.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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It was an arrangement that worked surprisingly well at a
time when people elsewhere in Europe were murdering each other in God’s name.
All parties recognized Transylvania’s vulnerability and wanted to deny
predatory outsiders a chance to intervene. Over time, toleration became
embedded in society and political culture, enhancing princely power since he
could pose as the defender of all faiths and their liberties against Habsburg
confessionalization and absolutism. However, it created confusion for external
relations, particularly once the prince converted to Calvinism in 1604. While
nine-tenths of his nobles now shared his faith, the peasantry were mainly
Catholic or Orthodox, while the burghers were Lutheran. Christian powers
looking to Transylvania only saw its leadership and mistook the principality as
a Protestant champion ready to save them in their hour of need. While it might
serve his purpose to present himself as such to outsiders, the prince remained
conscious that his rule depended on preserving the balance between the ethnic
and confessional groups.</div>
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<br /></div>
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There were also significant material obstacles that
inhibited Transylvania from playing a major role in European affairs. Over half
its territory was covered by forest and barely a fifth lay under cultivation.
The population was concentrated in isolated pockets largely cut off from each
other by trees and mountains. It was impossible to maintain a western-style
regular army, and in any case, such an army would be ill-suited to operating in
such conditions. Like its immediate neighbours, Transylvania relied on lightly
armed cavalry able to cover 35km a day, supported by smaller numbers of
irregular musketeers to hold outposts on the border. Such forces lacked staying
power in a formal battle, which they generally avoided, preferring to break
their opponent’s will to resist by rounding up livestock and civilians. These
tactics were thwarted if the enemy took refuge in walled towns or fortresses,
since the Transylvanians lacked artillery and the disciplined infantry needed
for a siege. They were also unable to sustain operations for more than a few
months, waiting until the grass grew in the spring for their horses before
setting out, and returning home with their booty before the high summer
scorched the ground.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Strategy and
Logistics</b></div>
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These logistical problems were found elsewhere in the Danube
valley and across the Hungarian plains (puszta) where temperatures soared in
the summer and plummeted below freezing in winter, and hampered all combatants.
The surrounding mountains were blocked by snow from the autumn until the spring
thaws that swelled the rivers and flooded a third of the plains for much of the
year, providing a rich breeding ground for malarial mosquitoes. Hungary lay at
the north-west periphery of the Ottomans’ world empire, 1,100km from their
European base at Adrianople (Edirne). A field army of 40,000 infantry and
20,000 cavalry required 300 tonnes of bread and fodder a day. Crop yields in
eastern Europe were half those of Flanders and other western agricultural
regions that could support ten times more non-producers. Even Poland, rapidly
becoming the bread basket of western European cities, exported only about 10
per cent of its net crop in the later sixteenth century. It was often
impossible to requisition supplies locally in the Danube area, especially as
the population tended to be concentrated in isolated pockets, as in
Transylvania. The Turks were forced to follow the line of the river during
hostilities, reducing their advance to 15km a day. If they set out in April,
they could not reach Vienna before July. Not surprisingly, Ottoman armies
relied on Belgrade once war broke out, since this was already two-thirds of the
way to the front and was the first major city on the Danube west of the Iron
Gates (Orsova) pass between the Transylvanian Alps and the northern reaches of
the Balkan mountains of modern Bulgaria. These strategic and logistical factors
imposed a certain routine on the Turks’ campaigns. Operations began slowly with
the collection of troops from across the empire at Adrianople or Belgrade. The
main army reached the front in July, leaving only a few months to achieve
success before the autumn rains set in during September, while the sultan
traditionally suspended campaigns on 30 November with the onset of winter.</div>
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Major operations were the exception and most fighting
involved cross-border raiding that remained endemic due to political,
ideological and social factors. The region lay at the extremity of both the
Ottoman Empire and the kingdom of Poland, and while physically closer to the
heart of Habsburg power, it was still politically distant. All the major powers
were forced to rely on local landowners and their private armies who commanded
the resources, loyalty and respect of the scattered population. Though wealthy,
the magnates in Hungary and Transylvania were adopting expensive new
lifestyles, with decorated country houses, foreign university education and
grand European tours for sons and heirs. They could not afford large permanent
forces to defend the frontier and also needed to satisfy poorer clients who relied
on banditry to supplement their incomes from livestock, horse breeding or
farming. Those at the centre tolerated the situation as the only way to retain
the loyalty of the unruly border lords, and as a convenient means to put
pressure on their international opponents. As the secular representatives of
opposing world religions, neither the emperor nor the sultan could accept
permanent peace without implying recognition of an alternative civilization.
The lack of clear frontiers allowed a policy of gradual expansion by
encroachment, whereby whichever side was currently stronger exploited weakness
in the other to assert the right to collect tribute from border villages.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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Frontiers shifted back and forth like sand with the tide,
while major fortified towns remained immovable rocks that required open war to
crack.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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Such fortresses began to be built during the 1530s as both
the Ottomans and Habsburgs entrenched their hold over Hungary. The Turks had
the advantage of shorter interior lines of defence, with a compact position
along the middle Danube and in Bosnia to the south-west. They relied on around
65 relatively large castles held by 18,000 regular soldiers, with 22,000
militia recruited from their predominantly Christian subjects to patrol the
gaps. The Habsburgs were forced to defend an 850km-long arc to the west and
north, partly detached from Austria and Bohemia by chains of mountains. Lateral
movement was restricted, since all the rivers drained eastwards into the
Ottoman-held Hungarian plain. Each Austrian and Bohemian province had its own
militia, but mobilization depended on the Estates who wanted them mainly for
local defence. The Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529 proved a shock and prompted
the construction there of new bastioned fortifications in the Italian manner
between 1531 and 1567. Plans to modernize these had to be shelved in 1596 due
to the peasant unrest and a lack of funds, leaving the capital weakly defended
when the Bohemians and Transylvanians attacked in 1619. The civic militia was
converted into a regular garrison in 1582, but they numbered only five hundred
men.</div>
</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-75670851337498447022015-10-11T00:55:00.001+08:002016-02-08T05:21:30.661+08:00Transylvania—the Stronghold of Hungarian Sovereignty<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzVhBhdjkryfM1g4BDvemS7XWDVHHm8lL2cpYPD_TGT16ms7lSiuleLfMxmBIZxQxU6rUVSOOo0XYu7r0xsLcXXPS8aF_ElCzIc9vN_SkCFSi_Qkzysp7Dv6JnzaJwbNU2vVBOtgmEMKE/s1600/vasrjuvar.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzVhBhdjkryfM1g4BDvemS7XWDVHHm8lL2cpYPD_TGT16ms7lSiuleLfMxmBIZxQxU6rUVSOOo0XYu7r0xsLcXXPS8aF_ElCzIc9vN_SkCFSi_Qkzysp7Dv6JnzaJwbNU2vVBOtgmEMKE/s400/vasrjuvar.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
There is no doubt that the autonomy of Transylvania,
achieved by that tireless champion of Hungary’s unity Frater György, became an
important locus of Hungarian statehood in the midst of German and Ottoman
domination and a haven of Hungarian culture and identity that was significant
for the nation’s future.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The trisection of Hungary resulted in the nation being split
into two camps above and beyond the explosive religious division. The
principality of Transylvania, being ruled by Hungarian princes nominated or
approved by the Sultan, was an obvious stepping-stone for the Ottoman Empire’s
expansionism. Because the isolation and weakening of the Habsburgs served
Turkish interests, princes of European stature such as István Báthory (who was
elected king of Poland), István Bocskai and Gábor Bethlen could develop
Transylvania into a bastion of twofold resistance against the Habsburgs and the
Counter-Reformation which they so strongly promoted.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
At the end of the sixteenth century Transylvania was larger
in area than the Hungary of today: 100,000 as against 93,000 square km. The
principality comprised the so-called “Partium” as well, i.e. those northern and
south-eastern counties that had been separated from the Hungarian rump kingdom
by a Turkish-controlled wedge. The fertile and densely populated borderlands
added considerably to Hungarian predominance. Estimates suggest that about
955,000 people lived at this time in the principality of Transylvania: about
half a million Hungarians including 250,000 Székelys, 280,000 Romanians, 90,000
Saxons and about 86,000 “others”, mainly Serbs and Ukrainians. However, the
core of Transylvania, i.e. without the counties and towns belonging to the
“Partium”, was only 60,000 square km. and had a mere 650,000 inhabitants. This
clarification is important because in the seventeenth century during domestic
turmoil and external attacks the rich region of the “Partium” was temporarily
occupied by the Turks. The significance of this relatively small principality
can only be understood against this multiethnic and multicultural background.
Just at the time when Hungarian spiritual and cultural life was almost
extinguished in the parts of the country ruled by the Habsburgs and the Turks,
Transylvania proved to be the bastion of tolerance and national culture.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century the matter of
religious freedom and the battle between Reformation and Counter-Reformation
could not be divorced from the political right of self-determination and the
political aspects of the Turkish system of vassalage. The Ottoman Empire was
uninterested in this religious conflict, yet the positions of the protagonists
involved cross-border relations. However, the desire for reunification with
Royal Hungary, especially in the sixteenth century, played an important role in
the principality’s foreign policy. The Sublime Porte identified the Catholic
position with the Habsburgs, their most formidable enemy, and the Protestant
position with the Transylvanian protectorate. At a later stage alliances were
made against the Habsburgs by rebellious Transylvanian princes and French
kings, with the Sultan’s benevolent support—the result simply of the Turks
regarding the enemies of their arch-enemy as their friends.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For almost two centuries, between the tragedy of Mohács and
the forced peace of Szatmár following the failed fight for freedom by Ferenc
Rákóczi II in 1711, the greatest and most courageous princes, magnates,
soldiers, clerics, thinkers, poets and students endeavoured to salvage
Hungary’s national existence from the clutches of the two greatest potentates,
the Emperor and the Sultan. It was a constant conflict, a confusing tug-of-war
between realism and illusion, between recognizing the situation and maintaining
the claims of ancient greatness. During the era of foreign rule and domestic
anarchy, concepts such as loyalty and treachery, freedom and suppression
conformed to no clear-cut pattern with, on the one side, Christendom and, on
the other, infidel Islam. Particularly during the period of Reformation and
Counter-Reformation the sense of Christian unity was not always stronger than
the aversion from “the Germans”, i.e. “the Habsburgs”, even amounting to
hatred. In times of necessity the Defenders of Christendom joined even with the
Turkish arch-enemy against Vienna and the excesses of the Counter-Reformation,
to which was added the cruelty of foreign mercenaries.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
Hungarian nationality and religious freedom were
inseparable, particularly in the fight against the Catholic-Germanizing trend
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The choice between temporary
agreement with the Turks, or uncompromising struggle against the infidel was a
question which, in different circumstances and to different degrees, split
Hungary’s political and intellectual élite more than once. When the nation’s
survival, culture and statehood were being considered, the great national task
was reunification of a country arbitrarily divided into three parts. The option
of independent or less independent action, of bad or not so bad solutions, of
the greater or lesser evil, called for some dramatic changes of course and
infinite flexibility. The Ottomans and Habsburgs were enemies, and at the same
time allies of divided Hungary. Hungarians, fighting in both camps, took part
in bloody confrontations against one or the other on several occasions.
Contemporaries interpreted the concepts of friend and foe very differently. In
both camps there were champions of “the true cause of the beloved country”, who
regarded those in the other camp as traitors. Especially during the Reformation
and Counter-Reformation, the heroes and apostles of religious freedom from and
in Transylvania were branded “guilty of high treason”, “power-hungry
adventurers”, “Turkish mercenaries” and “enemies of Christianity” not only in
Royal Hungary but also in the German literature of the time.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the battle of Mohács the Reformation swept like
wildfire over Hungary. A year before the fateful defeat, the Diet had still
demanded that the followers of the Lutheran confession (at that time still
almost exclusively Germans) be burned at the stake. The agents of Protestantism
were Hungarian and German students from Hungary. For instance, in 1616 the
University of Wittenberg alone counted 340 Hungarian students. Others studied
in Basel, Geneva, Leiden, Utrecht and even Oxford. Up to the end of the
sixteenth century 2,850 students from Hungary were registered at foreign
universities (their ethnic origin was not recorded).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
However, Lutheranism prevailed in the districts and towns of
northern Hungary inhabited partly by Germans and Slovaks, and in Transdanubia,
while the Hungarians, particularly in Transylvania, turned to Calvinism.
Nationality and religious denomination overlapped, creating a bulwark against
Islam (the Turks), Catholicism (the Habsburgs) and Orthodoxy (Romanians and
Serbs). The Reformation thus embodied a national character; men of the cloth
became the vanguard and mainstay of the national idea, and students returning
from Switzerland and the Netherlands became creators of a national literature
that arose from religious writings and Bible translations.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In his work The Three Historical Regions of Europe, quoted
earlier, Jenö Szücs referred to the reasons for the delay in the change from
Latin to Hungarian: “The lack of feudal courts and a chivalrous milieu delayed
Hungarian becoming the written language by three centuries.” The earliest
coherent literary relic in Hungarian—a funeral oration—was found in a Latin
codex from the end of the twelfth century. The ancient Hungarian Mary Lament,
one of the most beautiful poems in the language, originates from around 1300;
the Legend of Princess (Saint) Margaret and the Legend of St Francis were
written around 1310 and 1370 respectively; both survive only in later copies.
They were probably the earliest Hungarian translations. The authors of
religious texts and poems began to write in Hungarian only as late as the end
of the fifteenth century. The first Hungarian-language books were printed in
Cracow in 1527 and Vienna in 1536, and the first press in Hungary itself that
printed in the native language was established in 1537. The most important book
to be produced was arguably Gáspár Károlyi’s first complete translation of the
Bible, which appeared in 1590.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A surprising aspect of the birth and upsurge of Hungarian
culture was that so many of the greatest intellects between the sixteenth and
nineteenth centuries belonged to men of Croat, German, Slovak and Jewish
origin. Their Hungarianness was the result of choice, not of accidents of
birth. This was true, for example, of the Lutheran pastor Caspar Helth, who was
active in the largely Hungarian-inhabited city of Kolozsvár. The Saxon cleric
learned Hungarian only as an adult, and because of his love of the language he
became its first great stylist and at the same time printer and publisher of
Hungarian Bible translations and other works (1552–66). He is known in
Hungarian literary history by the name Gáspár Heltai. The first bishop of the
Hungarian Calvinists in Kolozsvár, originally called Franz Hertel, later become
known as the Protestant philosopher and preacher, Ferenc David.<br />
<br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There was never religious persecution in Transylvania, and
the principality even became the bulwark of religious tolerance, a rarity in
the Europe of the day. The first Prince, János Zsigmond, changed his religion
four times. His great successors provided for a peaceful coexistence of the
various faiths; several Diets (1550, 1564, 1572) declared the right to
religious freedom, first for Catholics and Protestants and later, after the
split within Protestantism into Lutherans, Calvinists and Unitarians, for all
creeds. During the “golden age” of Gábor Bethlen (1613–29) Transylvania served
as a unique example of tolerance. Thus Bethlen recalled the Jesuits, expelled
earlier from the principality, and even gave financial support to the Bible
translation of the Jesuit György Káldor. For his own reformed Church the Prince
founded a Calvinist academy, printing press and library, but at the same time
he assented to a vicar-general for the Catholics and a bishop for the Greek
Orthodox Romanians, and freed the Romanian clergy from their “bondage
obligations” and the Jews from wearing the yellow Star of David. Romanian
Orthodoxy counted as a “tolerated” religion because the Romanians did not
constitute a nation of Estates (like the Hungarians, Székelys and Saxons since
1437); thus although Orthodoxy could be freely practised, its followers were
denied political equality. Bethlen settled in Transylvania a group of Anabaptists,
persecuted elsewhere in Europe.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the mean time the Habsburg Counter-Reformation was
proceeding with full force in the kingdom of Hungary. The central figure and
architect of the successful re-Catholization was the Jesuit Péter Pázmány,
Cardinal-Archbishop of Esztergom (1570–1637). He crossed swords with the
Protestant preachers in Latin and Hungarian in his persuasive style, winning
back thirty magnate families to the Catholic fold; in most cases everyone
living on the magnates’ estates had to follow suit according to the principle
of cuius regio eius religio that operated after the 1555 Religious Peace of
Augsburg. Pázmány also founded a university in 1635 at Nagyszombat (Trnava),
which still exists today in Budapest.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Re-Catholization exacerbated the confessional split between
Hungarians in the west and east as well as the attitude towards the Turks.
Hungarian poets, philosophers and politicians called the seventeenth century
the century of “Hungarian decay”. Even though Turkish domination was the
decisive factor in Hungary’s decline, the consequences of the intolerant and at
times cruel rule of the Habsburg representatives in Royal Hungary and
Transylvania counted too. For Protestants harried by the agents of the
Counter-Reformation in Royal Hungary their persecutors were “worse than the
Turks”. The so-called Fifteen Years’ War that broke out between the Habsburgs
and the Ottomans in 1591 also plunged Transylvania into turmoil and misery.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The alliance of Emperor Rudolf and the young Prince Zsigmond
Báthory (1581–97), nephew of the first elected Prince and later great King of
Poland István Báthory, at first achieved significant successes against the
Turks. This young, athletic prince at first appeared brave and attractive, but
soon turned out to be a sinister and aberrant figure, like a Shakespearean
villain. His decline into an unpredictable and bloodthirsty psychopath was
hastened by his unhappy and unconsummated marriage to the Habsburg Princess
Maria Christina. Zsigmond was impotent, and to keep this a secret—and
compensate for it—he was constantly on the run from his wife and his country,
which he plunged into chaos with his bizarre escapades. He announced his
abdication no less than five times, only to return soon afterwards. Zsigmond
left Transylvania first to the mercy of the imperial commander Giorgio Basta,
then to the equally cruel intervention of Michael the Brave, voivode of
Wallachia, and finally to the Turks, eager for revenge.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the mean time Emperor Rudolf II strove by coercion to re-Catholicize
predominantly Protestant Transylvania, mainly by forced conversions and
confiscation of estates on trumped-up charges of high treason. His general
Basta unleashed a reign of terror against the Hungarians of Transylvania with
his mostly Walloon. Italian and Spanish mercenary troops. Although the
inhabitants of the German towns in Upper Hungary looked up to the Princes
Bocskai, Bethlen and Rákoczi as the champions of religious freedom, the conduct
of the mercenary armies and their generals fuelled the dislike and later sheer
hatred of Germans in general, and by extension the Habsburgs.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
These punishments and atrocities inflicted by the imperial
authorities provoked a revolt led by one of Zsigmond’s generals (and his
uncle), István Bocskai, previously one of the Emperor’s most loyal supporters.
In the midst of bloody chaos, this Calvinist landowner and gifted soldier
raised an army of daring warriors, the Hajduks. Of Slavic background, they had
originally been wild herdsmen of the plains, but later consisted mainly of
Magyar refugees driven from their homes by the long war against the Turks and
Germans and living on the fringes of society. Even though the expansion of
Lutheranism aroused the Hungarians’ dislike of German influence, the Habsburgs’
unrelenting Counter-Reformation hit the German-speakers in the towns of Upper
Hungary with particular force. Bocskai’s fight for political and religious
freedom therefore gained the support not only of Hungarians, but also of German
burghers and the lesser nobility.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bocskai had been known as one of the Habsburgs’ most loyal
followers and a Turcophobe, and his volte face and fervent calls also to the
nobles in Transdanubia proved the most convincing argument that a patriot could
make common cause even with the Turks in the interests of the country, the
Hungarians and religious freedom. An attack by the new imperial commander
Barbiano on Bocskai’s estates was crucial in this volte face. The Hungarian
Hajduks changed sides from the Emperor to Bocskai who, with the help of Turkish
and Tatar units, soon scored overwhelming victories. Elected Prince of
Transylvania in 1605 as well as of Hungary—he refused the kingship that was
offered to him—Bocskai concluded a peace treaty with the Emperor. This
recognized his life tenure in Transylvania, which was enlarged by four
counties. The Imperial powers also had to guarantee wide-ranging religious
freedom for all ranks of the nobility, the free cities and the market-towns,
extension of the nobles’ political rights, and restoration of the office of
palatine. In November 1606 Bocksai mediated the Peace of Zsitvatorok between
the Emperor and the Sublime Porte on the basis of the status quo. Soon after
this he died, probably poisoned by his over-ambitious Chancellor, who in turn was
hacked to pieces a few days later by the Hajduks.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bocskai’s victories and diplomatic successes ushered in a
new phase of Hungarian history. In an impressive testament, unpublished till
about two centuries later, the Prince urged “the Transylvanians… never to
separate from Hungary, even if they have a different Prince; and the Hungarians
that they should never toss away the Transylvanians from themselves, but should
regard them as their brothers, their own blood, their own limbs”. He considered
the equilibrium between the Germans and the Ottoman Empire vital for Hungary,
and he therefore unequivocally declared himself in favour of a strong
Transylvanian principality under the aegis of the Sultan: “So long as the
Hungarian crown is in the hands of a stronger nation, the Germans, and so long
as the Hungarian kingdom is dependent on the Germans, it is necessary and
useful to maintain a Hungarian prince in Transylvania, since he will protect
the Hungarians as well.” Transylvania as the stronghold of Hungarian sovereignty
until the re-emergence of a Hungarian kingdom, followed by a confederation
between it and Hungary—this was the political credo of Bocskai. His statue can
be seen next to Calvin’s on the monument of the Reformation in Geneva.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Although the Habsburgs succeeded in re-Catholicizing Royal
Hungary, east of the Tisza the Reformation remained almost intact in the spirit
of peaceful coexistence between the three recognized nations and respect for
their diverse creeds. Referring to the Habsburgs’ destruction of Bohemian
independence during the Thirty Years’ War, an anonymous
late-seventeenth-century pamphlet entitled The Moaning and Wailing declared
that the Habsburgs did not succeed in dressing the Hungarians “in Czech
trousers”.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-53223210425223725742015-08-17T17:52:00.002+08:002015-08-17T17:52:42.123+08:00Székelys - Szecklers<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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The Székelys, sometimes also referred to as Szeklers
(Hungarian: székelyek, Romanian: Secui, German: Szekler, Latin: Siculi), are a
subgroup of the Hungarian people living mostly in the Székely Land. A
significant population descending from the Székelys of Bukovina lives in Tolna
and Baranya counties in Hungary and in certain districts of Vojvodina, Serbia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Székely light cavalry fit perfectly into the medieval
Hungarian military forces, supplementing the army of armoured knights. They
were especially effective against nomadic invaders from the East, using similar
fighting methods and strategies. One of their first recorded military victories
is from the 1280s, when Székelys of the Aranyos Seat attacked and partly
destroyed the Tatar troops returning to Moldova packed with loot. But Székelys
were not only defending Transylvania, they took part in campaigns abroad, too.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1499, when armed clashes with the Ottoman Empire and its
vassal states became regular, a diploma issued by King Vladislaus II (II.
Ulászló) reaffirmed the conditions under which the Székelys provided military
services:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"When the
King personally leads his army towards the East, against Moldova, each one of
the Székely cavalrymen and infantrymen are required to be under arms, go before
the Royal Army and wait for the battle abroad for 15 days on their own expense.
Also, on the way back, they shall go behind the Royal Army. When His Majesty
sends his personal deputy to the East, half of the Székelys should accompany
him as described."</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In a similar way, half of the Székelys supported the king
during his campaigns against Wallachia and 1/5 of them if the army was only led
by a deputy. Common Székelys did not participate personally in wars with
Western and Northern countries; however, they were obliged to hire mercenaries
and send them in battle under the leadership of Székely captains. As a result of
their military services, Székelys had equal rights to the Hungarian nobles.
They were exempted from paying taxes and, when visiting the feudal noble
counties, even the poorest of them were treated as free people. As the diploma
of King Vladislaus II explains: "Therefore the Székelys, as nobles by
rights granted by glorious Hungarian Kings of the past, are exempt from any tax
or other duties, and are free." Following an old tradition, every landed
household gave an ox as a present to the king when he was crowned, when he got
married, and when a child was born in the royal family.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
#</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
Western-style mailed cavalry formed the core of Hungarian
armies. Yet the employment of steppe peoples- the Pechenegs, Szeklers, and
Cumans-as auxiliary light cavalry gave Hungarian armies a distinctive, hybrid
character and a tactical edge. The advantages of tactical combination of heavy
cavalry and horse archers were displayed with decisive results at the battle of
Dtirnkrut (Marchfield) in 1278, when the Hungarian armoured cavalry and their
Cuman auxiliaries played an important part in Emperor Rudolf’s momentous
victory. This hybrid military system was further developed under Louis the
Great. His Italian adventures in the 1340S and 1350S were pursued with armies
composed of 'lances', each of which consisted of a heavily armoured man-at-arms
and a group of lightly equipped horse archers. In the later fifteenth century,
it was light cavalry (the original 'hussars') who provided the rapid reaction
forces which backed-up Hungary's southern frontier fortifications and launched
raids (portycik) into Ottoman territory So dominant was light cavalry in King
Matthias Corvinus's army that the capabilities and limitations of these troops
effectively determined the way in which that army fought.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
#</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Michael the Brave (1593-1601), prince of Wallachia and then
of the three Romanian principalities, was one of the most prominent
personalities in Romanian military. Michael transferred economic and political
power to the great boyars, a move that hurt the peasants' social and economic
conditions. In that context, emerged in Wallachia at the end of the 15th
century, the armies of Michael the Brave were heterogeneous, comprising,
besides Wallachians and Moldavians, Polish riders with shields, hussars, Hungarians
from Transylvania, Szecklers, Kazakhs, Serbians, Albanians, Greeks, and
Bulgarian mercenaries. Michael the Brave's military force consisted of both a
permanent army and a temporary one. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The pan-Romanian front started to take shape in the winter
of 1594-1595 when the Romanian rulers were practically fighting against the
Ottoman Empire within the Holy League, the major anti-Ottoman coalition led by
the Hapsburg emperor Rudolph II. However, when 100,000 Ottomans led by Sinan
Pasha invaded Wallachia, Michael had, besides his 16,000 people, only one
Transylvanian army corps of 7,000 people, most of them Szeklers who were led by
Albert Kiraly. The victory in Călugăreni on Neajlov-Arges, on 13 August 1595
won renown, but the counteroffensive of the Romanian principalities' forces
gathered in Rucăr was even more well-known and efficient from a military
standpoint. It led to the defeat of the Ottoman troops in the town of Giurgiu
while they were on their way back over the Danube after having temporarily
conquered the cities of Bucharest and Târgovişte. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the Ottoman threat decreased, the prince of
Transylvania, cardinal Andrei Bathory, with the support of Poland started
threatening the rule of Michael the Brave in Wallachia. This is why the
Wallachian prince made a preventive strike, crossing the mountains and defeating
the Transylvanian army in Şelimbăr in 1599. This was, as the Romanian historian
Nicolae Iorga says, the first battle Michael the Brave fought on open terrain
against an army used to fighting according to Western custom. The same threat
was posed by Ieremia Movilă in Moldavia, who was serving the Polish interests;
this incited Michael to start a military campaign east of the Carpathians.
After that action he was entitled to call himself, in May 1600, ``by the grace
of God, prince of Wallachia, Transylvania, and all Moldavia.'' Romanian
historians have not yet agreed on the true reasons for Michael the Brave's
unifying the three principalities. Historical, ethnic, and religious arguments
proved that it may have been only a strategic-military action, a typical
medieval territorial expansion, or a military step toward a much larger
political project.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Poland, which had lost its influence in Moldavia, the
emperor Rudolph II of Transylvania, and the Hungarian nobles opposed this
unexpected situation and could not accept falling under the authority of a
Wallachian prince who imposed his own nobles. These leaders were also hostile
to Michael's attempts to rebuild his authority as prince of all three Romanian
principalities. This common attitude aided the Hungarian nobles in
Transylvania, who were led by general Gheorghe Basta, in defeating Michael in
the village of Mirăslău on 16 September 1600. Near the Wallachian border,
Michael was defeated again by the Moldavian and Polish forces led by Jan
Zamosky. Under these unpleasant circumstances, Michael was forced to ask for
Rudolph II's support at the Imperial Court in Prague. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Hapsburg emperor
negotiated a reconciliation between Prince Michael and General Basta. That
reconciliation led to the defeat of Sigismund Bathory on 3 August in a battle
in Gorăslău. After that victory, Michael succeeded only in entering Cluj,
Transylvania's major town. After only five days, on 9 August 1601, he was
murdered at the orders of General Basta in the camp in Ca<span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -4.0pt; position: relative; top: 4.0pt;"></span>mpia Turzii.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-77676719349402616992015-08-05T13:15:00.002+08:002015-08-05T13:15:25.109+08:00The Night Attack Of Targoviste<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitxXXrEusGnXOjZLWeLZ2hGiezHQFjxs6MFkXsKhyr6x_QLPxg6z6_mnmsacgklEKZPruEiRlxykLhIIe_hEjOuj_8qzVwG3QIM0KhmNtcHwR0cuO0cXzh17nbbnpGGAxIIgSGxsr6uDc/s1600/640px-AtaculdeNoapte.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="217" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitxXXrEusGnXOjZLWeLZ2hGiezHQFjxs6MFkXsKhyr6x_QLPxg6z6_mnmsacgklEKZPruEiRlxykLhIIe_hEjOuj_8qzVwG3QIM0KhmNtcHwR0cuO0cXzh17nbbnpGGAxIIgSGxsr6uDc/s400/640px-AtaculdeNoapte.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
<i><b>The Battle
of Targoviste was fought on the night of June 17, 1462 between the
armies of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II and Vlad III, Prince of Wallachia.
Better known as “Vlad the Impaler” or “Dracula,” the real
Vlad was a hardened veteran of the long Ottoman conquest of the
Balkans. Mehmed demanded a jizya, or tax on non-Muslims, from many
bordering states, but Vlad refused to pay. In 1460, the Hungarian
regent Michael Szilagyi (Vlad’s main ally against the Ottomans) was
captured by the Turks and sawed in half.</b></i></div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
When Mehmed’s
forces crossed the Danube and began pressing young boys into military
service, Vlad responded by capturing Turkish soldiers and impaling
them. Mehmed attempted to trick Vlad into an ambush, but the
Wallachians surrounded and massacred his force of 1,000 cavalry. By
1462, Vlad was engaging in outright ethnic cleansing—by his own
estimate, his forces slaughtered over 23,000 Muslim civilians and
sympathizers. In response, Mehmed invaded Wallachia with at least
150,000 men. Vlad could only field around 30,000.</div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
Vlad began a
scorched-earth campaign, retreating while burning crops, poisoning
water supplies, and diverting small rivers to create marshlands. He
even sent civilians infected with syphilis, leprosy, and bubonic
plague into the Turkish ranks.</div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
In 1462 Vlad
Dracula of Wallachia wrote a letter to King Matthias Corvinus of
Hungary describing how he had killed precisely '23,884 Turks and
Bulgarians in all, not including those who were burned in their
houses and whose heads were not presented for our officials'. The
raids are also described in the later German accounts of Vlad
Dracula's life. These are often exaggerated, but the description of
the Danube campaign cannot be very far from the truth, because he:
</div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
<i>ordered that
all these men, together with their maidens, should be slaughtered
with swords and spears, like cabbage ... Dracula had all of Bulgaria
burned down, and he impaled all of the people that he captured. There
were 25,000 of them, to say nothing of those who perished in the
fires. </i>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
When the Ottomans
advanced on Wallachia Vlad Dracula realised that he could not face
the Ottoman Army in open field combat, so he decided to retreat
covered by a scorched earth policy, after which he would launch
guerrilla raids on the Turks. This inevitably caused great suffering
to the population when Vlad burned fields and destroyed villages in
his own territory so as to deny supplies to the enemy. Wells were
poisoned and lifestock slaughtered. 'Thus', wrote Dukas, 'after
having crossed the Danube and advanced for seven days, Mehmet II
found no man, nor any significant animal, and nothing to eat or
drink.' The Turkish chronicler Tursun Beg described how:
</div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
<i>the front
ranks of the army reported that there was not a drop of water to
quench their thirst. All the carts and animals came to a halt. The
heat of the sun was so great that you could cook kebabs on the mail
shirts of the ghazis. </i>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
Soon the
guerrilla raids began, with stragglers being either beheaded or
impaled. On the night of 17 June 1462, when the Turks were well on
their way to Tirgoviste (Targoviste), Vlad the Impaler launched a
daring night attack on the Sultan's camp. Chalkondylas tells us how:
</div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
<i>At first there
was a lot of terror in the camp because people thought that a new
foreign army had come and attacked them. Scared out of their wits by
this attack, they considered themselves to be lost as it was being
made using torchlight and the sounding of horns to indicate the place
to assault. </i>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
When Vlad
launched a surprise night attack with 7,000 to 10,000 cavalry. The
attack caused chaos in the Ottoman ranks (historians differ on the
numbers killed, but many of the casualties were inflicted by confused
Turkish units attacking each other). By dawn they had regrouped and
pursued Vlad’s forces toward Targoviste. Thousands may have been
slain, but the raid failed in its primary purpose of killing Mehmet
the Conqueror himself because his loyal Janissaries rallied. The
raiders were driven off and disappeared into the darkness. A few days
later the Ottoman Army drew near to Tirgoviste. It had been prepared
for a siege like any other medieval town, but with one unique
addition. As Chalkondylas relates, Mehmet:
</div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
<i>saw men
impaled. The Emperor's army came across a field with stakes, about
two miles long and half a mile wide. And there were large stakes upon
which he could see the impeded bodies of men, women and children,
about 20,000 of them ... There were babies clinging to their mothers
on the stakes, and the birds had made nests in their breasts. </i>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
The sight of the
famous 'forest of the impaled' persuaded Mehmet the Conqueror, a man
who was well used to the horrors of war, to pull back from
Tirgoviste.</div>
<div style="line-height: 108%; margin-bottom: 0.11in;">
<br />
<br />
</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-67503991401682150942015-07-23T03:38:00.002+08:002015-07-23T03:38:37.689+08:00The road to Kosovo <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj00WOCQIce881yIe9j1ULkpXxC-hyZyi8dqVkqP3H3ffnLX6YH6Z1Gr29SIzZgc61BQl6eKpIMu_JKXdmcpxntvkpXqdZpj7zTkTTdiNOga00J1-M3Je8peovLzPpxmew3WtUXpQS44r0/s1600/Battle_of_Kosovo_1389.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj00WOCQIce881yIe9j1ULkpXxC-hyZyi8dqVkqP3H3ffnLX6YH6Z1Gr29SIzZgc61BQl6eKpIMu_JKXdmcpxntvkpXqdZpj7zTkTTdiNOga00J1-M3Je8peovLzPpxmew3WtUXpQS44r0/s320/Battle_of_Kosovo_1389.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>Battle of Kosovo</b></i></div>
<br />
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Everyone agrees that the assassin of Murad/Murat (The First)
was a Serb whose personal name was Miloš<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(turkified as Milos,) (anglicized to Milosh). But, after that,
identification of the killer begins falling<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">
off the track.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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One respected historical source says he was a crazed
camp-follower. Another claims he was a patriotic Serb nobleman. Since he could
have easily been both, we'll just say 'take your pick' -- and move on, to where
a more serious argument looms. Because... when it comes to the question of the
assassin's correct surname, the matter becomes more important to some.</div>
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<br /></div>
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When Stephen Dushan of Serbia died his empire passed into
the hands of his young son Urosh. His vassals soon renounced their allegiance
to him and set themselves up as independent princes. One of these Serb leaders,
Vukashin, who ruled in Serres, combined his forces with sympathetic Serbian
allies and marched northwards towards the Maritza Valley full of hope. But far
from driving the Turks out of Lurope they suffered a great defeat on 26
September 1371 at the battle of Cernomen where all the Serbian leaders were
killed. This battle, also known as the second battle of the Maritza, was called
in the Turkish chronicles 'Sirf sindigi' (the destruction of the Serbs). Murad
I was prudent after his victory and left much of Macedonia and Serbia in the
hands of local chiefs as his vassals. They included a certain Lazar, who,
although connected with the Dushan family did not claim the royal title. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Almost ten years went by before the Turkish advance against
Serbia was renewed. In the meantime they struck at Albania and Bulgaria. So
confused had been the state of Albania that its rulers were used to calling in
foreign troops to aid them against internal rivals, and so it was that the lord
of Durazzo called upon the Ottomans as allies in 1385. The price was vassaldom
and when the fortresses of Croia and Scutari fell to Murad I he handed them
over to his loyal Albanian followers. Elsewhere Thessalonica surrendered in
1387, but Murad I also sought to consolidate his position in Anatolia and took
Konya from the Turkish house of Karaman that same year. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Lazar of Serbia seems to have been stung into action by the
loss of Sofia in 1385, a defeat that was followed in 1386 by the occupation of
the Serbian city of Nis. He was also embarrassed by the use of Serbian vassal
troops in the Ottoman Army, so a combined force of Serbs and Bosnians went to
war and defeated the local Turkish commander. The victorious army grew, swollen
in number by hopeful contingents from Bulgaria, Wallachia, Albania and Hungary.
But swift action by Murad I detached Bulgaria from the league and, as he
marched north to take on Lazar, he was joined by many sympathetic Serbian
nobles. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The resulting armed clash was the famous battle of Kosovo,
fought in June 1389, an encounter that still has tremendous significance in
Balkan politics today. Among all the legends about the battle and its aftermath
three facts stand out. The Ottoman Turks were victorious; Murad I was killed by
a Serb at some point, although not during the actual fighting; and Lazar of
Serbia was captured and executed in revenge. His son Stephen Lazarevic
succeeded him and reigned for many years as a loyal Turkish vassal.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-7976219213505025602015-07-23T03:36:00.000+08:002015-07-23T03:36:33.441+08:00The Serbian challenge<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgItngqSNccOEl4bh8At44Pwm_vrcBhArLTx-u6KItn6Ca9mcSdmrveqMH9RhAo84eFFvuMG5RIk1FiB74aArzaBSSsK5lEceeHDi9A8uodEY2KpFKeX3RuYozTcwAGjR4XtJDPyo3PtbM/s1600/roster_serbia.jpg%257Eoriginal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgItngqSNccOEl4bh8At44Pwm_vrcBhArLTx-u6KItn6Ca9mcSdmrveqMH9RhAo84eFFvuMG5RIk1FiB74aArzaBSSsK5lEceeHDi9A8uodEY2KpFKeX3RuYozTcwAGjR4XtJDPyo3PtbM/s400/roster_serbia.jpg%257Eoriginal.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<b><i> Serbian Army</i></b><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhoQUeF1We8u8HAXtqyPpDkEf_AE5bLQ2ySXYAm__Qy4IVHEGusAfr-euy_WT2IXgG0eGJKAMSeJIxNISEFKkXayG8aBTqCdJLxt6D325nEws7bfa16pZLBerbc0y0OpRWfnm5Z1SDEiCQ/s1600/220.gif.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="285" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhoQUeF1We8u8HAXtqyPpDkEf_AE5bLQ2ySXYAm__Qy4IVHEGusAfr-euy_WT2IXgG0eGJKAMSeJIxNISEFKkXayG8aBTqCdJLxt6D325nEws7bfa16pZLBerbc0y0OpRWfnm5Z1SDEiCQ/s400/220.gif.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>Ottomans </b></i></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<div class="MsoNormal">
While the Ottomans had been expanding out of Anatolia a
different force had been growing in the north to challenge the Byzantine
Empire. In 1331 Stephen Dushan ascended the throne of Serbia and spent the next
20 years building up a Serbian Empire. Just like the Ottomans Dushan had taken
full advantage of the Byzantine succession dispute to conquer much of Albania
as well as parts of Thrace and Macedonia. In 1346 he had himself crowned
'Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks', and invited the Venetians to join him in the
conquest of Constantinople. Rumours that he was interested in reuniting the
Catholic and Orthodox confessions ensured Papal support for the scheme, but in
1355, just as he was about to set off on a grand crusade, Stephen Dushan died. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Dushan's Serbian Empire rapidly started to crumble after his
death, but when the Ottomans occupied Philippopolis in 1363 there was
sufficient glory left in the Serbian name to persuade its defeated commander to
seek help from that direction. A united force of Serbs, Bosnians and
Wallachians joined a Hungarian army under the Hungarian king, Louis the Great,
and marched against the Turks at Edirne. But their rapid advance made the
crusaders lazy. Less than two days from Edirne they made camp on the banks of
the river Maritza and celebrated their progress with feasting. The local
Ottoman commander led his predominately light cavalry arm in an ambush by
night. The Christians fled across the Maritza, which was in spate, and
thousands drowned. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1365 the Sultan transferred his capital from Bursa to
Edirne, a move of tremendous significance. To locate one's capital on the edge
of one's territory next to hostile neighbours was an act of enormous
self-confidence, and it proclaimed the sultan's future intentions with profound
clarity, Edirne was also a natural centre of horse-breeding and soon became the
seat of the imperial stables and stud-farms for the cavalry. Long after the capture
of Constantinople it remained a favourite imperial residence. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
From Edirne Murad I could look out over his territory as far
as the coast of the Black Sea, a stretch of land that encircled the rapidly
decreasing area dependent upon Constantinople. The toehold in Europe
established at Gelibolu had now been replaced by a mighty presence and a
dramatic statement of intent. The Ottoman advance could now continue from a
firm base. The greatest phase of the conquests was about to start.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-71468857076808605612015-06-08T06:08:00.002+08:002015-06-08T06:08:26.247+08:00Bran Castle, Romania.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjas3KoDG3myEC_x1Kl1kGSBDjWrGqt8krz0REX7tv7bIj16P5bcyr8SURd352MwX0bvATaLBVM3evWypxNsXsZj5ABFmSwZY1x-8HtianB4-Ron7yiO1hW6_z7B_3Li2gCpDqahFmYdE/s1600/2706494038_a3a17227e4_z.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjas3KoDG3myEC_x1Kl1kGSBDjWrGqt8krz0REX7tv7bIj16P5bcyr8SURd352MwX0bvATaLBVM3evWypxNsXsZj5ABFmSwZY1x-8HtianB4-Ron7yiO1hW6_z7B_3Li2gCpDqahFmYdE/s400/2706494038_a3a17227e4_z.jpg" width="300" /></a></div>
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<i><b> Cross outside main entrance to Vlad Tepes III castle, Bran, Transylvania, Romania.</b></i><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIgdMs0fa_tuxec2kkGW9RvVZ1hnuyCHKUEC26HXgWcdO7R8EfoZDEttp8BcY9FCNtenNkWh6eb7XvySUEJc-SK33XoTiw71OWUfWUmIzkjYPVNEBeJ5-bDha61tTV6qxHQZvzQQp1Sno/s1600/2499080474_fa1f2cd01e_b.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIgdMs0fa_tuxec2kkGW9RvVZ1hnuyCHKUEC26HXgWcdO7R8EfoZDEttp8BcY9FCNtenNkWh6eb7XvySUEJc-SK33XoTiw71OWUfWUmIzkjYPVNEBeJ5-bDha61tTV6qxHQZvzQQp1Sno/s400/2499080474_fa1f2cd01e_b.jpg" width="266" /></a></div>
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<i><b>A door under the mountain upon which sits Castle Bran, the home of Vlad Tepes, better known as Dracula.</b></i><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSVds6FaeiYcGrK87FU24EOCvoEGycJpcTm00hjVF9H1qO38YgB0jvtqyw1yJOJanci2UWMpzCrsr51A0g62gZQIOiyaAnyBVWJ7FBOUW8_eIRSV6aOS1JpO-WJ96sPhb-P7940T1g2y8/s1600/fortress_castle_in_bran_romania.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSVds6FaeiYcGrK87FU24EOCvoEGycJpcTm00hjVF9H1qO38YgB0jvtqyw1yJOJanci2UWMpzCrsr51A0g62gZQIOiyaAnyBVWJ7FBOUW8_eIRSV6aOS1JpO-WJ96sPhb-P7940T1g2y8/s400/fortress_castle_in_bran_romania.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<i><b> Wall of Bran Castle - haunted by the ghost of Vlad Tepes.</b></i><br />
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<i><b></b></i><br />
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<i><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgD3v4SrJeRxPtUOUiNNOwJ7YWiAM2G4IZBX5qZAuZYNc8lWIl28ugOJNC3f5nhtj-rzunTbDrH_yu8gVYSHXooa2vJBX8qZVnlKOb4sMB9MGGUNsXFj0C8gyGxXojgFg0b_TddXl1uD8A/s1600/tumblr_lft77c5jmn1qzmpyno1_500.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgD3v4SrJeRxPtUOUiNNOwJ7YWiAM2G4IZBX5qZAuZYNc8lWIl28ugOJNC3f5nhtj-rzunTbDrH_yu8gVYSHXooa2vJBX8qZVnlKOb4sMB9MGGUNsXFj0C8gyGxXojgFg0b_TddXl1uD8A/s400/tumblr_lft77c5jmn1qzmpyno1_500.jpg" width="266" /></a></b></i></div>
<i><b> Bran Castle, Romania.</b></i><br />
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Vlad the Impaler (Vlad Tepes) was allied with Bran and Brasov during his first reign (1436 – 1442) and through the start of his next reign, after the Princes of Transylvania requested that he handle the anti-Ottoman resistance at the border. During his second reign (1456 – 1462), however, his army passed through Bran in early 1459 to attack Brasov, in order to settle a conflict between the Wallachia Voivode and the Saxons, who requested higher customs taxes and supported his opponent for the throne. Vlad the Impaler burned the city’s suburbs and murdered hundreds of Saxons from Transylvania, provoking the Saxon community to seek revenge by later mentioning in reports that the Voivode were a tyrant and extremely ruthless.<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/rkt-kpNxBQ8" width="480"></iframe>
Bran castle is advertised as fictional Dracula the vampire castle, not as castle of the real voivode named Vlad III Draculea, or Vlad the Impaler. As some wrote its true that voivode (duke) Vlad the Impaler had the Poenari fort which also true is in ruins today, he also had 2 or 3 other forts, one of them also ruins at Bucharest, there is only the underground more or less intact. Vlad was founder of Bucharest, as city there, can see today a small monument and the ruins and underground of his previous fortress. Poenari is considered an important fortress, its in the Carpathians on the border of historic Wallachia and Transylvania on a high peek (that's the beauty of the place that you can see on one side Transylvania and on other Wallachia), near the river Arges that is also seen in some fictional movies.<br />
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Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-15097262864819359862015-06-08T05:46:00.000+08:002015-06-08T05:46:02.304+08:00Hunyad Castle<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhR1NMilolJcSR3Aa6lTIw_0IMlOqBJWf5SsVyDRzbboq8q0DFgaSWmdhB4lxpAII2JXyQicSpz-BnSCCsdigOa3ifqfZuKAUDR_jh-PNb6p7mfAZngyWcZEY3ns-xKwlhDUtj7wC4GsSQ/s1600/w704.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhR1NMilolJcSR3Aa6lTIw_0IMlOqBJWf5SsVyDRzbboq8q0DFgaSWmdhB4lxpAII2JXyQicSpz-BnSCCsdigOa3ifqfZuKAUDR_jh-PNb6p7mfAZngyWcZEY3ns-xKwlhDUtj7wC4GsSQ/s320/w704.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXT-zZ9x2eJ8o1HIfuGHlHScc1q7tniIC2AWfTH8LYmdNS1xFCeg4ffFihpTquG3gAWKoi1hvHr0PWEMTuzVzI_gujmqBsbjxr5RoWc4-iMBW3GVDsynb19V2OEV3WtIudPJFCs6FInWo/s1600/9b9b309d960a69968afa47f75e1254b4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXT-zZ9x2eJ8o1HIfuGHlHScc1q7tniIC2AWfTH8LYmdNS1xFCeg4ffFihpTquG3gAWKoi1hvHr0PWEMTuzVzI_gujmqBsbjxr5RoWc4-iMBW3GVDsynb19V2OEV3WtIudPJFCs6FInWo/s320/9b9b309d960a69968afa47f75e1254b4.jpg" width="312" /></a></div>
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<b><i>The Hunyad Castle (Romanian: Castelul Huniazilor or Castelul Corvinestilor, Hungarian: Vajdahunyad vára) is a castle in Transylvanian Hunedoara, present-day Romania. Until 1541 it was part of the Kingdom of Hungary, and after the Principality of Transylvania. Vlad the Impaler was imprisoned here for 7 years. Supposed to be extremely haunted. </i></b><br />
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Hunyad (or Corvin) Castle in Hunedoara is an amazing construction dating back to the 14th or 15th century, depending on whom you ask. Interestingly, it also has a tower named Nje Bojsia (meaning “Don’t be afraid,”) by the Serbian mercenaries who fought there. Add that to the coat of arms of the ruling family, which is a raven, and you get the perfect haunted location. And people really, really wanted it to be haunted. The crew of Most Haunted Live spent three nights here looking for Dracula, trusting the myth that says that Vlad the Impaler himself had spent seven years in the dungeons of the castle.<br />
<br />Although there is no proof of this being true, the castle still had its fair share of pain and torment. It is said that one of the leaders of the fortress, Iancu of Hunedoara, promised freedom to three Turkish prisoners if they would dig in the rock until they found water. The three prisoners are said to have dug for no less than 28 years before reaching their goal. Unfortunately for them, Iancu had died, and his wife didn’t care about her late husband’s promises. She ordered them to be beheaded. Before that, however, it is said that the three men managed to write, “You now have water but you don’t have heart,” together with their names, on the well wall to show the family’s lack of honor. Today, visitors can see both the well and its inscription in Turkish.<br />
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-36669468526172859882015-03-26T16:08:00.001+08:002015-03-26T16:08:23.032+08:00Dracula’s Armies<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8LrZ2hFhr0iGpkZkAAQyRJIX34Q_qiX59x_BLydX5hZZkzKq53Rtxlp27DFiUfWa9ksGlfYMW5OPcFCY0UeIhop95rtBHsTsrFY5j0QxsR1vhd3tCx5W47dbFIR-Gov5rKW5ebXZz-84/s1600/MirceatheElder.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8LrZ2hFhr0iGpkZkAAQyRJIX34Q_qiX59x_BLydX5hZZkzKq53Rtxlp27DFiUfWa9ksGlfYMW5OPcFCY0UeIhop95rtBHsTsrFY5j0QxsR1vhd3tCx5W47dbFIR-Gov5rKW5ebXZz-84/s1600/MirceatheElder.jpg" height="400" width="281" /></a></div>
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<i><b>Mircea the Elder, grandfather of Vlad Tepes, accepted the suzerainty of Poland in 1387 and of Hungary in 1395.</b></i><br />
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Mircea’s reign strengthened the power of the state. New offices were organized, increased economic development moved ahead and trade with the merchants of Poland and Lithuania flourished. With the increase revenue, Mircea was able to flex his military power and fortify the Danube citadels. Renewal of treaties with Hungary and Poland ensured focus on the common threat, the Ottoman expansion. <br /> <br /> Mircea’s intervention, supporting the Bulgarians, brought him in conflict with the Ottomans. Sultan Beyazid (the Thunderbolt) crossed the Danube with 40,000. With less than 10,000 troops, Mircea used guerilla warfare to maximum effect. On October 10, 1394, the armies clashed at Rovine, a forested and swamp area which inhibited the Ottomans from fully utilizing their superior numbers. <br /> <br /> Despite a glorious victory, Mircea was forced to fall back to Hungary as Vlad Uzurpatorul had seized the throne. While exiled in Hungary, her monarch called for a Crusade against the Ottomans. Contingents from as far away as France, the Holy Roman Empire, Genoa, Venice and Bulgaria assembled and crossed the Danube. The Battle of Nicopolis ended any hope of the Crusade flourishing. <br /> <br /> In 1397, with the help of Hungary, Mircea defeated Vlad the Usurper and stopped further Ottoman encroachment across the Danube. Further expeditions by the Ottomans met with no further success. The summer of 1402 began a period of anarchy when Sultan Beyazid met defeat by Tamerlane at Ankara. <br /> <br /> Subsequent campaigns further strengthened Mircea’s power and toward the end of his reign, the Ottomans settled a treaty with tribute to halt any further attempts to make Wallachia a province of the Ottoman Empire. <br /><br />
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footer"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of figures"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope return"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<div class="MsoNormal">
Vlad the Impaler was a medieval Romanian prince famed for
his brutal torture techniques and vicious lust for battle. His family name was
Draculea, meaning ‘son of the dragon’. In legend, he is said to have turned
against God after the death of his wife, becoming the evil undead. This myth
lead to the modern interpretation of Count Dracula and other Vampire stories.
In reality, Vlad was not a count but a prince. Whilst he was born in
Transylvania, Vlad was Crown Prince of Wallachia, a country in the south of
present day Romania, bordering Transylvania. He frequently made attacks on
Transylvania, which was a contested region, and slaughtered many there for not
accepting his authority.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Whilst Dracula is commonly associated with evil he is
sometimes seen as being somewhat of a Christian hero. He was a member of the
‘order of the dragon’, an order of Hungarian knights sworn to protect Christian
lands from the Muslim Ottoman Empire. Located between Christian Hungary and the
huge Ottoman Empire, Wallachia was on the front line in the Ottoman expansion
into Europe. Vlad’s barbarous torture techniques have earned him a place in
history but they were not altogether unusual in medieval Europe. They may also
have been exaggerated by his enemies. Impalement was supposedly his preferred
method of execution, but this was common practice at the time. Reports that he
burned entire villages to the ground are also unsurprising. In Western Europe,
however, tales of Vlad’s attacks across the Balkans led to him being branded a
‘bloodthirsty’ tyrant. In Russia, on the other hand, stories of his brutality
were equally rife, but most portrayed him as being a strong ruler and justified
in his actions. These Russian accounts tell that he nailed hats to ambassadors’
heads.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The idea that Dracula was immortal may be derived from his
own propaganda or that of the Ottomans, who found it difficult to put an end to
his insurgency. When he finally was killed in battle, the Ottomans removed his
head and placed it on display as proof of his death. It was impaled on a spike
in a final twist of irony.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">WALLACHIAN 1330 AD - 1504 AD</span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Rich boyars </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Lesser boyars or viteji </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Armoured voynuks with pole arms </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Archers </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
curteni archers </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Other rustici with spears, javelins, axes, halberds, flails,
maces and scythes </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Crossbowmen </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Handgunners </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Only Wallachians:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Moldavian allies </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Hungarian allies </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ottoman allies</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Wallachians after
1455 AD:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
"Crusaders" </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bombards</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ditch and earth bank to protect artillery</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This covers the Wallachians from their independence from
Hungary in 1330 until they became vassals of the Ottomans in 1476 after the
death of Dracula (Vlad Tepes, "Vlad the Impaler", 1456 - 1462 and
1476), The boyars were the nobility. Viteji were landowning peasants; many were
promoted to the gentry by Dracula for bravery on the battlefield - and given
the wealth of boyars he had impaled or otherwise inventively eliminated. The
curteni were the standing army of cavalry and infantry. An Italian traveller of
the mid-15th century described the Wallachian army as "ranking among the
most valiant in the world". Wallachians sought to fight in mountain
defiles, woods or marshy ground to restrict enemy cavalry. Some boyars wore
partial plate armour and fought with lances, but others were of Lithuanian
origin and may have fought in Lithuanian style. The Wallachians preferred a
more mobile battle, launching sudden attacks from ambush and under Dracula
indulging in night surprises and atrocities that established a complete morale
ascendency over the Turks, who at night huddled terrified behind their camp
defences. The so-called "Crusaders" were Italians and Bosnians and
Croats in Italian armour and were actually paid mercenaries.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-12167565451638795522015-03-04T13:21:00.001+08:002015-03-04T13:21:30.479+08:00Book Review: Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe<div class="entry">
HABSBURG Review 2000/28 8 November 2000<br /><br />Making Eastern Europe's Complexity Accessible to Non-Specialists<br /><br />Richard Frucht, editor. _Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism_. New York and London: Garland Publishing, 2000. xvi + 958 pp. Maps, index, $ 145 (library binding). ISBN 0-8153-0092-1<br /><br />Reviewed for HABSBURG by Hugo Lane <hlane@duke.poly.edu, Polytechnic University New York<br /><br />An encyclopedia of this type has long been wanting. While specialists may know two or three, and sometimes more languages due to the necessity of their work, they are still likely to find themselves with a question about a person, event, or region that is not likely to be in either an English language encyclopedia, or in an encyclopedia in a language they may know. Nor is it just specialists that have been hindered by this absence. As Richard Frucht explains in the introduction, as a member in a project sponsored by AAASS to encourage greater attention to Eastern Europe in secondary schools, the most widely sited obstacle sited by secondary school educators was the absence of a general reference guide about Eastern Europe. Given this experience, it is not surprising that Garland Publications asked him to what became the volume at hand, or that he felt he could not refuse, and I suspect that many of the Eastern Europeanists on HABSBURG would have reacted the same way.<br /><br />The results of Frucht's efforts are considerable. With the help of 215 specialists, he has compiled a single volume chocked full of information about East European geography, culture, history, and politics, which will give secondary school teachers a logical and informative base to set up a unit on Eastern Europe. This is particularly true of the articles surveying the history of Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia, which are intended to be the centerpieces of the work, and contain brief but solid bibliographies for further reading, as well as quite lengthy lists of entries about other relevant, but more specific topics. Noteworthy among this second type of articles are a number of articles that appear intended to break the national boundaries that make it difficult for non-specialists to gain a grasp for the similarities that exist between different countries, exemplified by articles on "peasant parties," "right-wing radicalism," and other strings of articles like those on the Communist parties, economic development, and women in the seven countries named above. Beyond that there are biographies of major historical and cultural figures, brief accounts of significant events and concepts, and geography to be expected in such a volume, which specialists are most likely to refer to.<br /><br />That is not to say that specialists will be 100% satisfied with the content of the articles. They will spot items that could or should have been included in entries with just a few more words. For the most part these are minor, however, and do not affect the overall value of the information for non-specialists. After all, how important is it that high school students know there were two peasant parties in the Second Polish Republic prior to 1931, when their teachers may only get a week to talk about all of Eastern Europe. Browsing through the articles this reader has spotted several small factual errors, but desirable as an error-free encyclopedia might be, it is also the rarest of rarities, and the errors spotted by this reviewer are not very harmful. Thus much as it may pain this reader's heart to learn that the university in L`vov (sic) was founded in 1656 and not 1661 as was long claimed at the university, or 1784 the date Joseph II established a university there favored by Ukrainian nationalists, the existence of a moderately old university in that city is likely to be news to many.<br /><br />What may well frustrate laypeople is the decision to conclude the historical surveys for Poland and Romania in 1989, and Albania in 1990. While this can be justified by the encyclopedia's title to go to the fall of Communism, it leaves the difficulties of post-Communist transition a blank spot only partially filled by more specific entries. Had this been a consistent editorial decision, it would have been easily justified, since 1989 is certainly a turning point. But it is not, and the narratives for Bulgaria and Hungary carry through to the late 1990s. Similarly, for obvious reasons, Czechoslakia's goes until its break-up into independent Czech and Slovak Republics in 1993 and it is supplemented by brief narratives about the two new states, a tack also followed in dealing with the fall of Yugoslavia.<br /><br />But overall it is not content, but conceptualization and organization that weakens the value of this compendium of knowledge. For the most part this is something scholars are likely to be most sensitive to than lay people, but some seem to be a surprising blindness to some of the basic problems non-specialists are likely to encounter when they try to learn something about Eastern Europe. This is best exemplified by the decision to use proper diacriticals for all East European languages, but without any instruction as to how they should be pronounced. True, this is usually the province of dictionaries, but given American's general unfamiliarity with languages other than English, it would have been particularly useful here, given that now even ten years after he became a well-known figure, one still regularly hears people pronounce the first name of the president of Czechoslovakia, as "vaklav."<br /><br />Similarly, while the Encyclopedia has a good index, there are none of those useful guideposts in the body of the book to direct readers looking for an article on a particular topic that it is located elsewhere. This is annoying enough when the subject is something with multiple nomenclature, like film, which here is listed as cinema, but it is really a problem when after being referred to the entry for Milan Obrenovic at the end of the article Yugoslavia, one heads to the O's and finds nothing since it is to be found in the M's as are the articles on Milos Obrenovic and his son Mihailo. Also, helpful as the lengthy lists of specific articles at the end of the big historical surveys are meant to be, they are likely to overwhelm readers as help them. Ordered in strict alphabetical order, these cross reference make it difficult to find the entries that might be relevant for a particular time period. Far more manageable and useful for readers would have been for such notification to be made directly in the text as topics come up, or at least at the end of each historical sub-heading.<br /><br />Indeed, it has occurred to this reader that in the case of Eastern Europe, a purely alphabetical order may not be the most friendly to lay users. Since the encyclopedia is structured around the lengthy articles about each of the seven "major" nations, it might have been good to order the book along national lines, with all articles concerning a particular country following the main article with an eighth section for topics that are relevant to the whole region or several countries. This would avoid the major page turning one has to do if one wants to read about two related topics that are not close together in alphabetical order like for example the "Polish November Uprising" and "Prince Adam Czartoryski." Be that as it may, the encyclopedia is organized strictly on alphabetical terms, and non-specialists will for the most part find what they are looking for and be satisfied.<br /><br />East European specialists perusing this encyclopedia can likewise live with those problems, but will be more troubled by a degree of randomness in what was deemed important and what was not. In particular, there is a striking inconsistency in the way Eastern Europe is conceptualized. In tbe introduction Frucht briefly informs readers that the value of the term "Eastern Europe" is debated among scholars, and then explains that for the purposes of this book, it will refer to those countries, excluding the Soviet Union, that were part of what was known as the East Bloc until 1989. In as much as this is what non-specialists in the United States understand as Eastern Europe, this is acceptable, although specialists and others with familiarity with Yugoslavia and Albania will bristle at the failure to mention its peculiar position vis-a-vis the Soviet-Bloc. Still, some acknowledgement of the problem of defining Eastern Europe would have been useful, including the differences between political and cultural borders and the difficulties that has posed, as well as some mention of Russia and the Soviet Union's relationship with these other countries.<br /><br />But this is not just a matter of something not said, because Frucht deviates from this narrow, but defensible principle when it suits him. Thus, there is an article on the establishment of the independent state of Moldova--indeed Moldova is included on the map of Eastern Europe 1945-1989 as an apparently independent entity. No similar treatment is given to the Baltic republics, which unlike Bessarabia were fully independent entities between 1918 and 1940.<br /><br />Similar editorial decisions have left this encyclopedia without any articles about either Byelorussians or Ukrainians. The omission of the Byelorussians can be justified since the only time they were not under direct Russian influence between 1815 and 1991 was during the interwar period when a substantial portion lived in the second Polish Republic. This excuse does not work in respect to the Ukrainians. While the majority of Ukrainians, as subjects of the Russian Empire and later citizens of the Soviet Union, may never have had a direct connection to the cultural currents of Eastern Europe, the minority living in Galicia did and played a disproportional role in the shaping of Ukrainian culture.<br /><br />By the same token, the antagonism between Poles and Ruthenian/Ukrainians was sufficiently important both under Austrian rule and later in interwar Poland to warrant a presentation from their prospective. Such neglect runs close to appearing to be an intentional snub when there is a two-page article on Russia, a further article of more than two pages on the historically much less significant, Carpatho-rusyns. This is topped off by the decision to use the Russian variant for as the heading for the article on the former Galician capital now in Western Ukraine rather than the Ukrainian one Lviv.<br /><br />Equally problematic for specialists, and particularly historians, is the decision to place the vast majority of historical information in the seven major articles. While this presumably was seen as the best way to deal with what scholars all know are complex and intertwined histories, it tends to reinforce national historical narratives that are no longer as universally accepted as they once were. But the most troublesome aspect of this weighting of the seven main historical essays is how it has led to inconsistency regarding regional entities of historical importance. Thus, while entries for the Banat, Moldavia, Wallachia, and the United Provinces add significant depth to the article covering Romanian history, the articles on Bukovina and Galicia provide no explanation of their places within the Austrian Empire or anything about nationalities issues besides brief surveys of census statistics. Even less satisfying are the articles for Bohemia and Moravia, which focus only on contemporary geographic and demographic information, with no discussion of them as long-standing historical units that had real meaning for the first century covered in this encyclopedia.<br /><br />The decisions about what political and cultural figures should be included in such a work are likely always to be subjective. Given the intended audience the inclusion of entries for significant people of East European origin that emigrated to the U. S was wise. But other factors that might make an entry warranted do not seem to have been established beforehand. Thus, Polish literature's first Nobel laureate, Wladyslaw Remont has no entry, although it is precisely lists like those of Nobel prize winners that are likely to prompt non-specialists to seek out information about figures who are not otherwise widely known. Also missing is an entry for Bohumil Hrabal, who was long the symbol of the persistence of Czech culture despite Communist rule, and many of whose works have been translated into English.<br /><br />Over a century ago, Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote that consistency is the hobgoblin of small minds. This is not a relevant dictum for the compilation of an encyclopedia, but it is also true that given the complexity of Eastern Europe, however defined, such an encyclopedia was likely to be quirky and appear inconsistent. What ever faults this book may have, it is the kind of single volume reference guide that was needed, containing a great deal of basic information about Eastern Europe, that hitherto has not been easily accessible in public and secondary school libraries. In so doing, Frucht, his editorial advisors, and contributors have blazed a trail suitable for broadening and straightening out at some future time, and as such we owe them thanks.<br /><br />Copyright (c) 2000 by H-Net, all rights reserved. This work may be copied for non-profit educational use if proper credit is given to the reviewer and to HABSBURG. For other permission, please contact <reviews@h-net.msu.edu.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-11950753981563519522015-03-04T13:19:00.001+08:002015-03-04T13:19:16.300+08:00Underworld: Rise of the Lycans<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0PnpHeBfjVVv9191fCKyxH12lE2V1_i0Hu_ykLerZA7ee4S2PwAKsbBSWb-VeuDY89x1LKwGA55Ck75N_8f0mHmtXbUOo4XYiAy4HrIf7yW4919FkZfa-23119SleiZZz9PajENWQpBE/s1600/underworld_-_rise_of_the_lycans_original_score.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0PnpHeBfjVVv9191fCKyxH12lE2V1_i0Hu_ykLerZA7ee4S2PwAKsbBSWb-VeuDY89x1LKwGA55Ck75N_8f0mHmtXbUOo4XYiAy4HrIf7yW4919FkZfa-23119SleiZZz9PajENWQpBE/s1600/underworld_-_rise_of_the_lycans_original_score.jpg" height="400" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
Underworld: Rise of the Lycans (also known as Underworld 3) is a
2009 American film directed by Patrick Tatopoulos. It is the third
installment (chronologically the first) in the Underworld series,
focusing primarily on the origins of some characters and the events
leading to the Vampire-Lycan war, depicted in the previous films
Underworld and Underworld: Evolution.<br />
<br />
<strong>Plot</strong><br />
The film tells the story of Lucian (Michael Sheen), the first
werewolf able to take human form and to be called a Lycan. Viktor
(Bill Nighy), a ruthless elder vampire, raises the child. Viktor
kills Lucian's werewolf mother but envisions a race of werewolf
slaves for his clan that could keep guard during the day and toil
for the vampires. As Lucian grows up, he and Viktor's young
daughter Sonja (Rhona Mitra) develop an attraction that blossoms
into love in their adult years, though they keep their relationship
hidden.<br />
<br />
Viktor has a relationship with the humans of the area; he
protects them from the werewolves that roam the countryside in
exchange for a tithe. As human nobles meet with the vampire council
for protection from the werewolves, Sonja guards them. Lucian hears
the werewolves near Sonja and orders Death Dealers sent to help
her. When his orders are denied, he steals a horse and sword from a
nearby Death Dealer. Werewolves proceed to kill the nobles, causing
Lucian to battle them. When Lucian changes into a Lycan in order to
protect Sonja, the werewolves back down. Viktor, despite
acknowledging that Lucian saved his daughter, feels betrayed by his
favorite pet and locks Lucian away after having him brutally
whipped.<br />
<br />
With the help of the scheming vampire Andreas Tanis, Sonja
orchestrates Lucian's release in exchange for her seat on the
vampire council. Lucian escapes, kills several of the vampires and
begins liberating the other Lycans. The guards begin slaughtering
the escapees. Sonja remains behind, but when Viktor discovers that
she has had a forbidden relationship with Lucian, he imprisons her.
Lucian and some of the freed Lycans roam the countryside recruiting
many of the labourers of the human nobles to their fight for
freedom. He also travels to a cavernous location that is teeming
with werewolves, attempting to contact them. The vampire nobles are
outraged by the escape and growing chaos, demanding that Viktor
recapture Lucian. Viktor however, knows that Lucian will come to
him.<br />
<br />
Lucian learns about Sonja's imprisonment from one of her
attendants and sets out to rescue her. Lucian orders his followers
to wait, but be prepared to attack if he does not return. Lucian
rescues Sonja from the fortress but they are attacked by the Death
Dealers. Sonja confronts Viktor and tries to get him to call off
his guards by revealing that she is pregnant with Lucian's child.
Disgusted, Viktor overpowers her and imprisons both her and Lucian.
Sonja is sentenced to death at a trial presided over by her father
and the council. Lucian is forced to witness Sonja's death, in
which she is burned to death by sunlight.<br />
<br />
Lucian awakens when Viktor comes in to view his deceased
daughter. As Viktor removes the pendant necklace he gave Sonja, an
enraged Lucian transforms and overpowers Viktor. Lucian takes
Sonja's pendant, escaping out a window. The escape is stopped at
the castle walls by Death Dealers who shoot Lucian with crossbows.
With a thunderous howl, Lucian summons the freed Lycans and
werewolves, who attack the coven. Viktor sends Tanis to remove the
slumbering Amelia and Markus from their crypts before joining the
battle with his personal guard. The council, meanwhile are
overwhelmed and butchered by the rampaging werewolves.<br />
<br />
Lucian sees Viktor entering the fray and fights his way to him.
Viktor and Lucian battle their way to the catacombs. The fight
continues until Lucian overcomes Viktor. Viktor's 'final' words
attest to his regret at not having killed Lucian the moment he was
born, to which Lucian sarcastically agrees before forcing his sword
through Viktor's mouth and head and letting the body fall into the
water below. Lucian emerges to the courtyard which is ringed with
the surviving Lycans, werewolves and freed slaves. He declares this
victory as only the beginning of what will become a war between the
races. Tanis is leading a very alive Viktor into a hibernation
chamber on a boat.<br />
<br />
The film ends with the opening scene of the first Underworld,
with the audio from the scene where Kraven tells Selene that it was
Viktor who murdered her family, rather than the Lycans, and that
Viktor spared her because she reminded him of the daughter he
condemned to death; Selene replies to Kraven, "Lies."<br />
<br />
<strong>Cast</strong><br />
Michael Sheen as Lucian: Enslaved as a baby, Lucian has only
been able to imagine the full extent of his Lycan powers. In the
evolution from werewolf to Lycan, Lucian feels the responsibility
of the Lycan race resting on his shoulders. At the same time, his
love for the vampire, Sonja, complicates his desire for freedom
from the Vampires.<br />
<br />
Bill Nighy as Viktor: One of three ruling Vampire Elders, Viktor is
a haughty, ostentatious Vampire overlord more than 1,000 years old.
Like most Vampires, he has a severe hatred for werewolves but also
a fascination with their unique strengths. Through slavery, he has
created a small but mighty force of Lycan slaves. Despite his best
efforts to govern the Coven, the Council members have begun to
question his leadership.<br />
<br />
Rhona Mitra as Sonja: Sonja is the daughter of the powerful Vampire
Elder, Viktor. Beautiful and brave, her nightly patrols defend the
Coven from the hordes of ferocious werewolves. Despite her father's
hatred for the Lycan race, she has fallen in love with the Lycan
slave, Lucian. She battles between the desire to fulfil the
responsibilities that come with her lineage and her willful nature.
Because of her love for Lucian, she is sympathetic to the enslaved
Lycans' plight.<br />
<br />
Steven Mackintosh as Andreas Tanis: Deceptive and conniving,
Andreas Tanis serves the Elders as advisor and historian of the
Coven. His desire for power, wealth and status lead him to do
nearly anything to stand in Viktor's good favor. Often tasked with
managing the strong-willed Sonja, he discovers the secrets held in
the dark corridors beneath the castle, intending to use them to his
advantage.<br />
<br />
Kevin Grevioux as Raze: Lucian discovers Raze's amazing bravery and
strength as he rescues him from near-certain death. The two become
friends and after Raze is turned into a Lycan, he joins Lucian's
struggle for freedom.<br />
<br />
Craig Parker as Sabas<br />
<br />
Jared Turner as Xristo<br />
<br />
David Aston as Coloman: a Vampire Councillor often questioning and
criticizing Viktor's actions.<br />
<br />
Elizabeth Hawthorne as Orsova: a Vampire Councillor who also asks
and points out the flaws with Viktor's actions.<br />
<br />
Kate Beckinsale as Selene: Beckinsale did not film new footage, a
scene from Underworld was used to bookend the film. Beckinsale also
provided a monologue for the beginning of the film.<br />
<br />
Shane Brolly as Kraven: Like Beckinsale, Brolly did not film any
new footage but lines of his dialogue from the first film are used
for the film's ending.<br />
<br />
Tania Nolan as Luka: Sonja's lady in waiting who gave the news to
Lucian that Sonja had been captured.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8706981645125418081.post-34189679530385082562015-03-04T13:17:00.001+08:002015-03-04T13:17:26.096+08:00The Female Vampire in Recent Fiction<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyRCuO7FDHVThIxqN3L3rR2JQJWqkcnF3bAGQ9UpzyHETzzoVCvqWDdjDFnw2D4o2zGnA9ngKPSFQH7_62OlXTd_y8TsEtiaE9Bg3DYD-uV_e2pyPst1RkcpmLohgHQn2XfqXMIDSZmdI/s1600/6565u675eu67e5vampire.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyRCuO7FDHVThIxqN3L3rR2JQJWqkcnF3bAGQ9UpzyHETzzoVCvqWDdjDFnw2D4o2zGnA9ngKPSFQH7_62OlXTd_y8TsEtiaE9Bg3DYD-uV_e2pyPst1RkcpmLohgHQn2XfqXMIDSZmdI/s1600/6565u675eu67e5vampire.jpg" height="400" width="280" /></a></div>
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<strong><em>Picture kindly provided by <a href="http://www.maria-lombide-ezpeleta.com/" target="_blank">MariaLombide Ezpeleta.</a></em></strong></div>
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As in the movies, Dracula and his male vampire kin dominated
twentieth-century vampire fiction writing. However, some females
vampires gained a foothold in the realm of the undead. Many of
these have been the imaginary product of a new crop of female
writers, though some of the most popular female vampire
authors—Elaine Bergstrom, P. N. Elrod, and Anne Rice—have chosen
male vampires for their protagonists.<br />
<br />
The century began with an assortment of short stories featuring
female vampires, including F. G. Loring’s “The Tomb of Sarah”, Hume
Nisbet’s “The Vampire Maid”, and E. F. Benson’s classic tale, “Mrs.
Amworth.” Female vampires regularly appeared in short stories
through the 1950s but were largely absent from the few vampire
novels. Among the first novels to feature a female vampire was
Peter Saxon’s 1966 The Vampires of Finistere. Three years later
Bernhardt J. Hurwood (under the pseudonym of Mallory T. Knight)
wrote Dracutwig, the lighthearted adventures of the daughter of
Dracula coming of age in the modern world.<br />
<br />
In 1969, possibly the most important modern female vampire
character appeared, not in a novel, but in comic books. Vampirella,
an impish, voluptuous vampire from the planet Drakulon, originated
in a comic magazine from Warren Publishing Company at a time when
vampires had disappeared from more mainstream comic books.
Vampirella was an immediate success and ran for 112 issues before
it was discontinued in 1983. The stories were novelized in six
books by Ron Goulart in the mid-1970s. Most recently, the character
has been revived by Harris Comics and is enjoying new
popularity.<br />
<br />
Female vampires have continued to emerge as the subject of
novels. From the 1970s one thinks of The Vampire Tapes by Arabella
Randolphe (1977) and The Virgin and the Vampire by Robert J. Myers
(1977). These were followed by the reluctant vampirism of Sabella
by Tanith Lee (1980) and the celebrative vampirism of Whitley
Strieber’s The Hunger (1981). Through 1981 and 1982, J. N.
Williamson wrote a series of novels about a small town in Indiana
that was home of the youthful-appearing but very old vampire Lamia
Zacharias. The books describe her various plots to take over the
world. In spite of some real accomplishments in spreading her
vampiric condition, she never reached her loftier goals. Other
significant appearances by female vampires occurred in Live
Girls(1987) by Ray Garton, Black Ambrosia (1988) by Elizabeth
Engstrom, and the first of Nancy A. Collins’s novels, Sunglasses
after Dark (1989), which won the Bram Stoker Award for a first
novel from the Horror Writers of America.<br />
<br />
The 1980s ended with the appearance of the “Olivia” novels by
Chelsea Quinn Yarbro. Olivia had first appeared in Blood Games, one
of the more famous Saint-Germain vampire novels. However, beginning
in 1987 Yarbro produced four lengthy explorations of
Saint-Germain’s former love living on her own. These novels
included A Flame in Byzantium (1987), Crusader’s Torch (1988), A
Cradle for D’Artagnan (1989), and Out of the House of Life
(1990).<br />
<br />
Also memorable during the 1980s was Vamps (1987), an anthology
of short stories of female vampires compiled by Martin H. Greenburg
and Charles G. Waugh. It included some often-ignored
nineteenth-century tales, such as Théophile Gautier’s “Clarimonde,”
and Julian Hawthorne’s “Ken Mystery,” as well as more recent
stories by Stephen King and Tanith Lee.<br />
<br />
Novels featuring female vampires continued into the early 1990s.
Traci Briery, for example, wrote two substantial novels, The
Vampire Memoirs (1991) and The Vampire Journals (1992), chronicling
the lives of two female vampire heroines, Mara McCuniff and Theresa
Allogiamento. Kathryn Meyer Griffith’s The Last Vampire looked into
the future to explore the problems of a reluctant vampire after a
wave of natural disasters had wiped out most of the human race. And
not to be forgotten is The Gilda Stories, a lesbian vampire novel
by Jewelle Gomez, an African-American author.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0